若根據曼特爾的筆記,他在1820年於蒂爾蓋特森林發現大型動物化石,其中帶有獸腳類恐龍的牙齒。曼特爾當時認為這些化石是肉食性動物,可能是種巨大的史前鱷魚。隔年,他發現其中帶有植食性動物的牙齒,開始思考部分化石可能來自於大型植食性動物。曼特爾在1822年發表的文獻《Fossils of the South Downs》,提到這些化石來自於史前大型肉食性、植食性動物,但他沒有將不完整的身體化石歸類於任何一種。
不管當初事實的真相是如何,曼特爾前往倫敦皇家學會請教當時的化石專家這些牙齒屬於哪些動物。當時大部分科學家,例如威廉·巴克蘭(William Buckland)與喬治·居維葉(Georges Cuvier),最初認為這些牙齒來自於魚類或哺乳類(例如第四紀的犀牛)。在1824年,威廉·巴克蘭敘述、命名了斑龍,之後再度檢視曼特爾的化石,認定這些牙齒屬於史前大型爬行動物。之後喬治·居維葉也修正他的看法,這些牙齒屬於大型爬行動物,而且可能是植食性動物。喬治·居維葉在1824年再版的《Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles》,提到曼特爾發現的化石,並使古生物學界開始瞭解這些新發現。曼特爾開始著手寫論文,企圖找出這些牙齒與現在爬行動物的相似處,並拜訪多位學者與學術單位[15]。皇家外科醫學院的一位博物學家山繆·斯塔奇伯里(Samuel Stutchbury),認為這些牙齒類似鬣蜥的牙齒,儘管體積是鬣蜥牙齒的兩倍大小[4]。在1825年,曼特爾完成他的史前爬行動物牙齒研究,並將研究結果提交給倫敦皇家學會[13][16]。
在確認過這些牙齒與鬣蜥牙齒的相似處後,曼特爾將牠們命名為禽龍(Iguanodon);在希臘文裡,iguana意為「鬣蜥」,odontos意為「牙齒」[5]。曼特爾基於異速成長理論,而估計這動物的身長接近18公尺,超過當時估計的斑龍身長(12公尺)[16]。曼特爾最初是想將牠命名為Iguanasaurus(鬣蜥龍),但他的朋友威廉·丹尼尔·科尼比尔(William Daniel Conybeare)建議這個名字比較適合鬣蜥本身,而Iguanoides(似鬣蜥)或Iguanodon(鬣蜥牙齒)是更好的選擇[15][17]。曼特爾當時忘記取種名,所以在1829年,弗里德里希·霍尔(Friedrich Holl)將禽龍命名為I. anglicum,後來修改為安格理克斯禽龍(I. anglicus)[18]。
1834年,肯特郡梅德斯通發現了一個更好的標本,屬於下海绿石砂組地層。曼特爾馬上便取得了該標本,他從牙齒辨認出它屬於禽龍。曼特爾嘗試根據梅德斯通化石,而製作禽龍的重建骨骼。但他犯了一個著名的錯誤,將一個角狀物置於鼻部之上[19]。後來所發現的保存狀態更好標本,透露出該角狀物應該是拇指上的尖指爪。在梅德斯通所發現的標本,現在與岩石一起在倫敦自然史博物館展示中。在1949年,梅德斯通當地為了紀念這個發現,將一隻禽龍放在當地的紋章上[20]。這個標本被認為與克里斯蒂安·埃里希·赫尔曼·冯·迈尔(Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer)在1832年所命名的曼氏禽龍(I. mantelli)有關聯,汪邁爾命名曼氏禽龍來取代安格理克斯禽龍;但事實上,發現安格理克斯禽龍化石的岩層,與曼氏禽龍所處岩層並不相同[17]。
恐龍文藝復興開始於1969年對於恐爪龍的重新描述,但禽龍並非恐龍文藝復興的初期研究對象之一,不過並沒有被忽視太久。大衛·威顯穆沛(David B. Weishampel)對於鳥腳亚目恐龍進食方法的研究,提供了禽龍進食方式的相關資訊[40];而大衛·諾曼(David B. Norman)針對禽龍屬的多層面研究,使得禽龍成為最研究最深入的恐龍之一[3][7][41][42]。此外,在德國北萊茵-威斯伐倫州布里隆鎮一個村中發現的眾多禽龍骨骸,則提供禽龍是群居動物的證據。這群禽龍包含至少15個個體,身長範圍從2到8公尺之間,牠們可能是被洪水所淹死的;而其中某些修長個體屬於相近的曼特爾龍或道羅齒龍(當時被認為是禽龍的一種)[27][39]。
因為禽龍是最早被命名的恐龍之一,過去曾有許多的種被歸類於禽龍屬。不同於其他早期恐龍(例如斑龍與畸形龍),禽龍並沒有成為垃圾箱类群,但禽龍仍擁有複雜的分類歷史,而牠們的分類目前仍持續進行重新研究[39][44][45][46]。其中最著名種是貝尼薩爾禽龍,化石已發現於比利時、英格蘭,可能還有德國、西班牙、以及法國;而發現於美國猶他州與南達科他州的化石已建立為新屬;發現於突尼西亞、蒙古的化石,可能屬於禽龍屬。在2008年,葛瑞格利·保羅(Gregory S. Paul)重新研究禽龍的各種,將貝尼薩爾禽龍的範圍限定在比利時貝尼薩爾附近發現的化石;而歐洲其他地區發現的禽龍化石,年代為巴列姆階,體型較為粗壯,另外標明為Iguanodon sp.,意為未確定名稱的種[39]。貝尼薩爾禽龍過去被視為典型的英國恐龍,但現在與英國關聯不大。
I. exogyrarum:由弗里奇在1878年命名,有時也拼成I. exogirarum或I. exogirarus。化石材料非常少,因此狀態為疑名,目前被乔治·奥利舍夫斯基(George Olshevsky)建立為新屬,壞骨龍(Ponerosteus)[54]。
凡登禽龍(I. valdensis):是由約翰·赫克(Jone Hulke)在1879年命名,最初被命名為威特島龍,化石包含脊椎與骨盆,發現於威特島的巴列姆階地層[55]。在1900年,Ernst van den Broeck將其改歸類於禽龍屬的一個種[56]。目前可能是曼特爾龍的一個成長中個體[57],或是曼特爾龍的一個未確定種[39]。
拉科塔禽龍(I. lakotaensis):是由大衛·威顯穆沛與菲利浦·比約克(Philip R. Bjork)在1989年所命名[64]。拉科塔禽龍是北美洲發現的唯一禽龍有效種,化石包含一個部份頭顱骨,發現於美國南達科他州的拉科塔組,地質年代為下白堊紀的巴列姆階。拉科塔禽龍的歸類是有爭議的,有些研究人員認為牠們比貝尼薩爾禽龍原始,並與眾神花園龍(Theiophytalia)有接近親緣關係[65],而大衛·諾曼則認為牠們是貝尼薩爾禽龍的一個異名[44]。在2008年,葛瑞格利·保羅(Gregory S. Paul)重新研究禽龍的各種,將拉科塔禽龍獨立為新屬,拉科塔達科塔齒龍(D. lakotaensis)[39]。
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^Beckles, Samuel H. On the ornithoidichnites of the Wealden. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London. 1854, 10: 456–464.
^(英文)Owen, Richard. Monograph on the Fossil Reptilia of the Wealden and Purbeck Formations. Part IV. Dinosauria (Hylaeosaurus). Paleontographical Society Monograph. 1858, 10: 1–26.
^(英文)Bird-Footed Iguanodon, 1857. Paper Dinosaurs 1824–1969. Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology. [2007-02-14]. (原始内容存档于2006-09-28).
^(英文)Glut, Donald F. Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia. 3rd Supplement. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc. 2003: 626. ISBN 0-7864-1166-X.
^(英文)Lapparent, Albert-Félix de. Footprints of dinosaurs in the Lower Cretaceous of Vestspitsbergen — Svalbard. Arbok Norsk Polarinstitutt, 1960. 1962: 13–21.
^(法文)van Beneden, P.J. Sur la découverte de reptiles fossiles gigantesques dans le charbonnage de Bernissart, près de Pruwelz.. Bulletin de l'Institut Royal d'Histoire Naturelle de Belgique. 1878, 3 (1): 1–19.
Kristus menyembuhkan orang buta, lukisan tahun 1640 Orang buta dari Betsaida adalah salah seorang yang disembuhkan dari kebutaan oleh Yesus Kristus secara ajaib. Kisah ini hanya dicatat di Injil Markus, yaitu di Markus 8:22–26 sebagai berikut: “ Kemudian tibalah Yesus dan murid-murid-Nya di Betsaida. Di situ orang membawa kepada Yesus seorang buta dan mereka memohon kepada-Nya, supaya Ia menjamah dia. Yesus memegang tangan orang buta itu dan membawa dia ke luar kampung. Lalu Ia meludahi m...
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University of Wisconsin–MadisonSchool of EducationTypeState universityEstablished1930DeanDiana HessTotal staff1,067 (Fall 2021)Students2,788 (Fall 2021)Undergraduates1,619 (Fall 2021)Postgraduates1,164 (Fall 2021)LocationMadison, Wisconsin, USA43°04′33″N 89°24′08″W / 43.0757167°N 89.4023°W / 43.0757167; -89.4023CampusUrbanWebsiteeducation.wisc.edu Education Building on Bascom Hill The University of Wisconsin–Madison School of Education is a school withi...
Pour les articles homonymes, voir Fustel et Coulanges. Numa Denis Fustel de CoulangesPortrait photographique par Eugène Pirou.FonctionDirecteurÉcole normale supérieure1880-1883Ernest BersotGeorges PerrotBiographieNaissance 18 mars 1830Ancien 2e arrondissement de ParisDécès 12 septembre 1889 (à 59 ans)MassySépulture MassyNationalité françaiseFormation École normale supérieure (1850-1853)Faculté des lettres de Paris (doctorat) (jusqu'en 1858)Lycée CharlemagneActivités Histor...
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British mathematician, philosopher and university teacher (1806–1871) This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as the article is largely based on Lectures on Ten British Mathematicians of the Nineteenth Century, which was published in 1916; it needs significant rewrites for tone and modern encyclo...
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Ferdinand Rudio, 1884 Ferdinand Rudio (born 2 August 1856 in Wiesbaden, died 21 June 1929 in Zurich) was a German and Swiss mathematician and historian of mathematics.[1][2] Education and career Rudio's father and maternal grandfather were both public officials in the independent Duchy of Nassau, which was annexed by Prussia when Rudio was 10. He was educated at the local gymnasium and Realgymnasium in Wiesbaden, and then in 1874 began studying at ETH Zurich, then known as the...
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Part of a series onChild soldiers Main articles Child soldiers History Girl soldiers Piracy Impact Rehabilitation and reintegration Issues Abduction Sexual abuse Trafficking Prostitution Post-traumatic stress disorder Instances (examples) World War II Africa Cambodia Central African Republic Democratic Republic of Congo India Myanmar Palestine Sierra Leone Somalia Sri Lanka Yemen Legal aspects Paris Principles Convention on the Rights of the Child Optional protocol Movement to end the use of...
Voce principale: Giochi della XXI Olimpiade. Questa voce o sezione sull'argomento scherma non cita le fonti necessarie o quelle presenti sono insufficienti. Puoi migliorare questa voce aggiungendo citazioni da fonti attendibili secondo le linee guida sull'uso delle fonti. 19º torneo olimpico di schermaMontréal 1976Informazioni generaliSport Scherma EdizioneGiochi della XXI Olimpiade Paese ospitante Canada CittàMontréal Periododal 20 luglio 1976 al 29 luglio 1976 Cronologia dell...