原始汉语

原始漢語
Proto-Chinese, Proto-Sinitic, Primitive Chinese
重建自漢語族
區域華夏
時代公元前十六世紀(早商)以前[1][2]
重建之祖語
下層重建
陶文(存在争议)
漢語發展演變簡圖

原始漢語(英語:Proto-Sinitic language),是原始漢族使用的一種祖語歷史語言學假設所有漢語都擁有共同始祖,並根據這個假設來重建出這種語言。學者一般相信,原始漢語分支自原始漢藏語,之後獨立發展,在商代後期形成上古漢語[1]

原始漢語的研究相當困難,因為缺少文字資料,漢字本身非拼音文字,對於上古漢語的研究不足,很難重建出原始漢語。現代語言學者一般利用比較語言學的方法,將漢語與其他漢藏語系語言進行比較,以期重建出原始漢語。另外,《切韻》具有綜合音系性質,不能未經調整就直接擺入任何一個階段,否則會帶來極大的困難;《詩經》韻部和現代漢語方言韻母,不一定要與龐雜的《切韻》韻類一個一個劃上等號,而是根據具體狀況予以酌情簡化《切韻》韻類。

理論模型

高本漢曾把明代以前的漢語分為五個時期:1.太古漢語(le proto-chinois,《詩經》以前);2.上古漢語(le chinois archaïque《詩經》);3.中古漢語(l'ancien chinois,《廣韻》);4.近古漢語(le chinois moyen,韻圖);5.老官話(le vieux chinois,《洪武正韻》)[3][4]

張琨(1976)首先提出「原始漢語」音韻系統,其認為漢語大致呈現一種南北分途發展的走向,一般學者研究上古漢語,多以《詩經》的押韻情形做為主要考量。然而,《詩經》的地理基礎主要在北方,反映北方系統,與南方系統並無直接繼承的關係,因此過去習慣視《詩經》為漢語源頭的觀點必須改變,南北分途的雙線發展應該得到正確的描寫[5]

就年代而言,《詩經》音系早於《切韻》音系,然而,相較於綜合南北兩大音系的《切韻》而言,《詩經》的地理基礎窄,《切韻》的地理基礎寬,從《詩經》出發無法解釋《切韻》所有的類別,從《切韻》出發卻可以看到《詩經》的合併過程(如元與山仙在《詩經》是一類)。因此,新的觀點是從《切韻》的基礎上投射出一個原始系統[6]

張琨所提出的漢語語音史模式[5][6]


凡是從詩經系統無法解釋的切韻類別,應該能從原始系統得到解釋。許煜青(2015)認為,張琨所提的這種模式與西方印歐語顛倒重建的概念正好吻合[5]。以下列表比較:

語言 問題 同層語言的證據 提出的解決方式
日耳曼語 原始印歐語無法解釋格林定律的例外濁化 希臘語及梵語的重音分布 維爾納定律
中古漢語 《詩經》韻部無法解釋《切韻》分韻的複雜性 原始南方漢語域外方音的分韻情形 張琨模式

原始漢語韻母的重建

張琨首先以《詩經》(北方)系統內部的空格展開觀察,他對上古韻部的構擬如下:

支佳*-ig 之*-əg 魚*-ɑg 宵*-ɑug 幽*-əug 侯*-ug 脂*-id 微*-əd 歌*-ɑ
祭*-ɑd
錫*-ik 職*-ək 鐸*-ɑk 藥*-ɑuk 覺*-əuk 屋*-uk 質*-it 物*-ət 月*-ɑt 緝*-əp 葉盍*-ɑp
耕*-iŋ 蒸*-əŋ 陽*-ɑŋ 冬中*-əuŋ 東*-uŋ 真*-in 文*-ən 元*-ɑn 侵*-əm 談*-ɑm

在代表北方的《詩經》音系裡,元音與韻尾的配列上出現許多空格:

-g.-k.-ŋ -d.-t.-n -p.-m -∅
展唇 ɑ
ə
i
圓唇 u
əu
ɑu

舌根音尾前所有六種元音都出現(*-ɑuŋ是空檔,可能很早就變入*-ɑŋ),其他舌尖音尾、唇音尾只跟展唇元音相配,不和圓唇元音一起出現。這種不均衡的組配關係,即為重建原始漢語的線索。其基本假設為:那些出現在舌根韻尾前的圓唇元音,於較早時期也都曾經出現在舌尖和雙唇韻尾前;上古時期以後那些發生在舌根韻尾前的元音變化,於前上古時期也都曾經發生在舌尖和雙唇韻尾前。

而要補齊這些系統性的空缺,尚需實際的語言證據,如前述,張琨運用《切韻》系統的綜合性質投射出原始漢語系統,並參考南方漢語及域外方言,來說明《詩經》音系所空缺的韻母。以元韻字為例,福州話元韻字讀-o-元音,日語吳音也有-o-元音,都是圓唇成分的證據。這個圓唇成分經過比對,韻母為原始漢語的*-əun。簡言之,原始漢語的*-əun韻,到了《詩經》系統與*-ɑn韻合流(山仙無別,同歸元部),在南方系統裡卻仍單獨成類,比如福州話元韻為-yoŋ、仙韻為-ieŋ。[5][6][7]

語法特徵

原始汉语的详细面貌还不清楚,已经知道的只有以下几点:有名词、动词、形容词、数词等词类系统,词形可能有屈折形态变化,有第一人称代词和第二人称代词,没有第三人称代词,宾语普遍置于动词之前,修饰语也往往置于被修饰语之前,有大量复辅音声母,四声尚未产生。[1]

魏培泉(2000)結合Norman(1988:11)和梅祖麟(1997)的內容,整理了原始漢語(原文為遠古漢語)、上古漢語現代漢語的幾項特徵。[8]

單音節 有聲調 有複聲母 少形態 量詞必用 修飾語在前 SVO
現代漢語 -
上古漢語 +
原始漢語 + ±

腳註

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 杨剑桥.《实用古汉语知识宝典》.上海市国权路579号:复旦大学出版社,2003年8月:3-4
  2. ^ Chinese languages | History, Characteristics, Dialects, Types, & Facts | Britannica. www.britannica.com. [2022-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2018-02-20) (英语). 
  3. ^ 孟蓬生 | 漢語前上古音論綱(一) | 自由微信 | FreeWeChat. freewechat.com. [2022-10-13]. (原始内容存档于2021-06-16). 
  4. ^ 高本漢:《中國音韻學研究》第20-21頁,商務印書館,1940年。
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 許煜青 (2015).
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 張賢豹 (1987).
  7. ^ 張琨 (1987).
  8. ^ 魏培泉(2000),東漢魏晉南北朝在語法史上的地位。

參考資料

  • Chang, Kun; Chang, Betty Shefts, The Proto-Chinese Final System and The Ch'ieh-Yün (PDF), The Institue of History and Philology Monographs Series A No. 26, Taipei, Republic of China: Institue of History and Philology, Academia Sinica: 1–209, 1976 [2021-06-07], (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-06-07). 
  • Chang, Kun, Chang, Hsien-Pau (Kuang-Yu) , 编, Collected Papers on Chinese Historical Phonology (漢語音韻史論文集), Taipei, Taiwan: 聯經出版公司: 1–209, 1987, ISBN 9789571505664. 
  • 張賢豹, 〈張琨教授古音學說簡介〉, 《漢語音韻史論文集》 257, Taipei, Taiwan: 聯經出版公司, 1987. 
  • 許煜青. 漢語方言鼻音韻母的發展 (学位论文). 國立清華大學中國文學系. 2015. 

延伸閱讀

  • Bodman, Nicholas C. Proto-Chinese and Sino-Tibetan: data towards establishing the nature of the relationship. van Coetsem, Frans; Waugh, Linda R. (编). Contributions to historical linguistics: issues and materials. Leiden: E. J. Brill. 1980: 34–199. ISBN 978-90-04-06130-9. 
  • Schuessler, Axel, Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-8248-3264-3. 
  • Norman, Jerry, A Model for Chinese Dialect Evolution, Simmons, Richard VanNess; Van Auken, Newell Ann (编), Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text (PDF), Language and Linguistics Monograph Series 53, Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica: 1–26, 2014 [2021-06-07], ISBN 978-986-04-0343-5, (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-06-07). 
  • Zev, Handel, Old Chinese and Min, 中国語学 257, Tokyo, Japan: 日本中国語学会: 34–68, 2010. 
  • Li, Paul Jen-Kuei, Insight and Extension of Duan Yucai's liushu yinyun biao (段玉裁〈六書音均表〉的啟示與延伸), 聲韻論叢 19, Taipei, Taiwan: 台灣學生書局有限公司, 2017 [2021-06-07], (原始内容存档于2021-06-07). 

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