格林定律(Grimm's law)是首組發現的音變規律,使得歷史音位學誕生成為獨立學科。1806年,施勒格尔首先注意到拉丁語p對應日耳曼語f。1818年,拉斯穆斯·拉斯克把這規律延伸到梵語和希臘語等其他印歐語言,并包含所有輔音。1822年,雅各布·格林在《德語語法(Deutsche Grammatik)》一書中發表了這法則,延伸到包括標準德語。他注意到這規則仍然不能解釋許多單詞的輔音,這些例外困擾了語言學家數十年,但最終獲丹麥語言學家卡爾·維爾納(Karl Verner)解釋,成為維爾納定律。
格林定律由三部分組成,這三部分構成了連續的推移鏈。
這推移鏈可以簡單表示成
這裡每個音向右移一位,得到新音值。注意,原始日耳曼語⟨b⟩、⟨d⟩、⟨g⟩、⟨gw⟩所代表的發音在某些情況是塞音而在另一些情況是擦音,bʰ→b在這裡應該理解為bʰ→b/β,其餘同理。日耳曼語文獻通常將清擦音記做⟨f⟩、⟨þ⟩、⟨h⟩、⟨hw⟩。
音變的具體細節仍不清楚,可能經歷了許多中間過程。上文列出的推移鏈可能是“拉鏈”,按照1→2→3順序,每組音變導致音系出現空位,“拉”著其他音位填補空缺,進而引起後續音變;也可能是“推鏈”,按照相反順序3→2→1,每組音變“推”著下一組,以避免合併音位。
過程也可能按照這方式
這過程會導致相同結果。格林定律的這一變體常用在在原始印歐語的聲門音理論中,這理論很少支持者。這理論假設PIE的“濁塞音”原本應該是清的,所以第二階段並不是濁塞音變清塞音,而是丟失了其他某種音節特征例如聲門化或擠喉。這替代方案也能解釋維爾納定律,在聲門音理論的框架下,假設格林定律按照這方式,更易解釋維爾納定律。另外,清塞音變成擦音的音變也發生在原始印歐語到原始意大利語的過程。
格林定律所描述的音變發生之後,就只剩一套濁輔音,濁塞音和濁擦音之間沒有區別。它們最終在單詞首和鼻音後變成塞音(一般情況),其他地方變成擦音。它們原本是塞音還是擦音不能知曉。這些濁塞音可能原先是濁擦音,後來在某些條件下硬化成塞音。也可能原本都是塞音,後來在多數地方軟化成擦音。
大約在格林定律所描述的變化發生的同時,由維爾納定律所描述的另一種變化導致某些清擦音濁化,使格林定律產生例外。例如:
這裡同一個音*t在第一例變成*þ /θ/,服從格林定律;但在另一例變成*d /ð/,違反格林定律。
早期日耳曼語的*gw來自原始印歐語的*gʷʰ(還有部分來自*kʷ,維爾納定律)經歷了後續變化:
格林定律之後的音變,以及其他印歐語的音變,有時可能會掩蓋格林定律的結果。最常用來說明的例子如下
拉丁語:pēs,pedis
梵語:pāda
俄語:под(pod)"在……下面"
立陶宛語:pėda
拉脫維亞語:pēda
波斯語:پا(pa)
西弗里斯語:foet
德語:Fuß
哥特語:fōtus
冰島語,法羅語:fótur
丹麥語:fod
挪威語,瑞典語:fot
拉丁語:tertius
威爾士語:trydydd
梵語:treta
俄語:третий(tretij)
立陶宛語:trečias
阿爾巴尼亞語:tretë
古弗里西語:thredda
古薩克遜語:thriddio
哥特語:þridja
冰島語:þriðji
丹麥語,瑞典語:tredje
拉丁語:canis
威爾士語:ci(cwn的複數)
波斯語:سَگ(sag)
荷蘭語:hond
德語:Hund
哥特語:hunds
冰島語,法羅語:hundur
丹麥語,挪威語,瑞典語:hund
愛爾蘭語:cad
梵語:kád
俄語:ко-(ko-)
立陶宛語:kas
哥特語:ƕa(hwa)
冰島語:hvað
法羅語:hvat
丹麥語:hvad
挪威語:hva
西弗里斯語:djip
荷蘭語:diep
冰島語:djúpur
瑞典語:djup
哥特語:diups
希臘語:δέκα(déka)
愛爾蘭語:deich
梵語:daśan
俄語:десять(desyat')
立陶宛語:dešimt
荷蘭語:tien
哥特語:taíhun
冰島語:tíu
法羅語:tíggju
丹麥語,挪威語:ti
瑞典語:tio
希臘語:γελανδρός(gelandrós)
立陶宛語:gelmenis,gelumà
西弗里斯語:kâld
荷蘭語:koud
德語:kalt
冰島語,法羅語:kaldur
丹麥語:kold
挪威語:kald
瑞典語:kall
俄語:живой(živoj)
梵語:jīvá-
西弗里斯語:kwik,kwyk
荷蘭語:kwiek
德語:keck
哥特語:qius
冰島語,法羅語:kvikur
丹麥語:kvik
瑞典語:kvick
挪威語:kvikk
古希臘語:φρατήρ(phrātēr)
拉丁語:frāter
俄語:брат(brat)
立陶宛語:brolis
古教會斯拉夫語:братръ(bratr')
立陶宛語:brālis
波斯語:برادر(barádar)
西弗里斯語,荷蘭語:broeder
德語:Bruder
哥特語:broþar
冰島語,法羅語:bróðir
丹麥語,挪威語,瑞典語:broder
荷馬希臘語:μέθυ(methu)
立陶宛語:midus
俄語:мёд
東弗里西語:meede
荷蘭語:mede
丹麥語,挪威語:mjød
冰島語:mjöður
瑞典語:mjöd
古希臘語:στείχειν(steíkhein)
荷蘭語:stijgen
德語:steigen
冰島語,法羅語:stíga
丹麥語,挪威語:stige
哥特語:steigan
(意義均為“攀登”)
古希臘語:χήν(khēn)
梵語:hamsa「天鵝」
立陶宛語žąsis(older žansis)
俄語:гусь(gus')
波斯語:غاز(ğaz)
西弗里斯語:goes,guos
荷蘭語:gans
德語:Gans
冰島語:gæs
法羅語:gás
丹麥語,挪威語,瑞典語:gås
(n之後)
西弗里斯語:sjonge
荷蘭語:zingen
德語:singen
哥特語:siggwan
古冰島語:syngva,syngja
冰島語,法羅語:syngja
瑞典語:sjunga
丹麥語:synge,sjunge
阿維斯陀語:garəmó
古普魯士語:gorme
亞美尼亞語:ǰerm
荷馬希臘語:θερμός(thermos)
俄語:жар
斯洛文尼亞語:gorkó
波斯語:گَرم(garm)
(Otherwise merged with existing g and w)
西弗里斯語:waarm
荷蘭語,德語:warm
丹麥語,瑞典語:varm
冰島語:varmur
如兩塞音組成輔音叢,前者按照格林定律改變,而後者不會。若其中一者是清音,則整叢輔音清化,且前者會去圓唇化。
大部分例子都是s+塞音(*sp,*st,*sk,*skʷ),或者擦音+t(*ft,*ss,*ht,*ht)
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