The Totonacan languages (also known as Totonac–Tepehua languages) are a family of closely related languages spoken by approximately 290,000 Totonac (approx. 280,000) and Tepehua (approx. 10,000) people in the states of Veracruz, Puebla, and Hidalgo in Mexico. At the time of the Spanish conquest Totonacan languages were spoken all along the gulf coast of Mexico.[1]
During the colonial period, Totonacan languages were occasionally written and at least one grammar was produced.[2] In the 20th century the number of speakers of most varieties have dwindled as indigenous identity increasingly became stigmatized encouraging speakers to adopt Spanish as their main language.[3]
The Totonacan languages have only recently been compared to other families on the basis of historical-comparative linguistics, though they share numerous areal features with other languages of the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area, such as the Mayan languages and Nahuatl. Recent work suggests a possible genetic link to the Mixe–Zoque language family,[4] although this has yet to be firmly established.
Internal classification
The family is divided into two branches, Totonac and Tepehua. Of the two, Tepehua is generally considered to consist of three languages—Pisaflores, Huehuetla, and Tlachichilco—while the Totonac branch is considerably more diverse. MacKay (1999) divides Totonac into four divisions, based on García Rojas (1978):[5][6]
Papantla Totonac: spoken in El Escolín, Papantla, Cazones, Tajín, Espinal, and other towns along the Gulf Coast of Veracruz.
Misantla Totonac: spoken in Yecuatla and other communities outside the city of Misantla.
As of 2023[update], Ethnologue recognizes 12 languages in the Totonacan family, three Tepehua languages and nine Totonac.[7] This classification is the basis of the latest version of the ISO language codes for Totonacan, although some of these classifications are disputed.
Coyutla Totonac is grouped with South Central Totonac by INALI while Tecpatlán Totonac is included in the North Central Totonac group. Other recent attempts at classification have suggested that some of these divisions, particularly North Central, Costal, and South Central, and are far too broad and include varieties that might also be classified as separate languages.[10][4][11]
A further drawback of the Ethnologue and INALI classifications is the lack of lower-level subgroups beyond the two-way division into Totonac and Tepehua. In the Totonac branch of the family, Misantla is the most distinctive, and the remaining languages form a more closely related group.[12] Divisions amongst the latter group, which might be referred to as "Central Totonac," are unclear, though most researchers agree that there is at least a three-way division between Northern, Southern/Sierra, and Lowland/Coastal varieties.[4][12][13] Recent efforts at reconstruction and evidence from lexical similarity further suggest that Southern/Sierra and Lowland group together against Northern,[4] although this is still uncertain, pending more exhaustive investigation. The most recent proposal for the family is as follows:[4][11]
Lexical comparison also suggests that, for Tepehua, Pisaflores and Huehuetla may be more closely related to each other than either is to Tlalchichilco.[4]
MacKay and Trechsel (2018) provide the following internal classification:[14]
There is some variation in the sound systems of the different varieties of Totonac and Tepehua, but the following phoneme inventory can be considered a typical Totonacan inventory.[15]
This consonant inventory is essentially equivalent to that reconstructed for proto-Totonacan by Arana Osnaya (1953,[12] with the exception of the two back fricatives, /x/ and /h/. Most modern languages phonemically have only one of these, but show some allomorphic variation between the two, with one or the other being considered basic. However, Coatepec Totonac is reported to have both phonemes,[16] and more recent reconstructions of the proto-Totonacan consonant inventory have proposed that both were present in that language.[17][4] The glottal stop is a marginal phoneme in most of the languages and is posited primarily for morphological reasons. The phonological system is fairly typical of Mesoamerica.
Vowels
Most Totonacan languages have a three-vowel system with each quality making distinctions of length and laryngealization. The following is the "typical" Totonacan vocalic inventory.
Tepehua has lost the phonemic laryngealization of vowels and has ejective stops where Totonac has creaky vowels preceded by stops.[12] Some Totonac languages have five-vowel systems, having developed /e/ and /o/ phonemes, whereas in others [e] and [o] are clearly allomorphs of /i/ and /u/, respectively, conditioned by proximity to uvular stops or fricatives.
Grammar
From a typological perspective, the Totonac–Tepehua family presents a fairly consistent profile, and exhibits many features of the Mesoamerican areal type, such as a preference for verb-initial order, head-marking, and extensive use of body part morphemes in metaphorical and locative constructions.[11] The Totonacan languages are highly agglutinative and polysynthetic with nominative/accusative alignment and a flexible constituent order governed by information structure. Syntactic relations between the verb and its arguments are marked by agreement with the subject and one or sometimes two objects. There is no morphological case on nouns and many languages in the family lack prepositions, making use instead of a rich system of causatives, applicatives, and prefixes for body parts and parts of objects. Possession is marked on the possessed noun, the head of the NP. Otherwise, nouns are uninflected, number being an optional category and grammatical gender being absent from the languages. Numerals quantifying nouns bear classificatory prefixes, something that is unusual cross-linguistically as affixal classifiers tend heavily to be suffixes.[18] Totonacan languages are also known for their use of sound symbolism.
Causatives and applicatives
Totonacan languages have a wide assortment of morphemes for increasing the valency of a verb.
‘ “I'm just letting you know”, he says.’[21] Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
In some languages like Upper Necaxa, the suffix is analyzed as part of the causative morpheme,[22] but in others it is treated as a separate transitivizer.[11]
Dative/benefactive applicative
One of the most frequently used valency-increasing affixes in the Totonacan languages is the dative or benefactive suffix:[11]
All the languages of the family have a comitative construction in which both an actor and a co-actor of a verb are specified.[11] For instance, in Huehuetla Tepehua a verb such as tamakahuːn 'stay, be in a place' is intransitive but can take a comitative prefix to form a verb ta̰ːtamakahuːn meaning 'stay with someone', someone being the co-actor:
‘I will bury her with you’[26] Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Instrumental applicative
The third applicative prefix that is shared across the family is analyzed in most of the languages as an instrumental applicative and is used to add an object used as an instrument or a means to a clause:
Olintla Totonac
pues liːˈlɑqpɑqɬe ˈntʃiwiʃ] [tɘlɑqˈpitsiɬ]
INTJ
INTJ
liː-láq-paqɬ-ɬi
INST-DST-break-PFV
tʃíwiʃ
stone
ta-laq-pítsi-ɬi
INCH-DST-split-PFV
INTJ liː-láq-paqɬ-ɬi tʃíwiʃ ta-laq-pítsi-ɬi
INTJ INST-DST-break-PFV stone INCH-DST-split-PFV
‘So he broke the rock with it, it was split.’[27] Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
‘Because they cured him for a lot of money.’[30] Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
As seen in the last example, this prefix is ɬi- in Tepehua languages rather than liː- as it is in Totonac, and in Tlachichilco [31] and Huehuetla[32] it is analyzed as a directional ("DIR") rather than an instrumental. The prefix seems to be less frequent in Tepehua than in Totonac.
Body-part prefixation
The Totonacan languages exhibit a phenomenon similar to noun incorporation whereby special prefixing combining forms of body-parts may be added to verbs.[33][34] When these prefixes are added, they generally serve to delimit the verb's locus of affect; that is, they indicate which part of the subject or object is affected by the action.
‘He went to, what do you call it?, cut a birch tree,’[36]
It is worthwhile to note that the prefixation does not decrease the valency of the verb, differentiating this process from true noun incorporation as the term is usually understood.[37]
Another important role that bodypart prefixes play in Totonacan languages is in the formulation of expressions of the spatial location of objects, which combine a part-prefix with one of four posture verbs (words for ’sit’, ‘stand’, ‘lie’, and ‘be high’):
‘the book is on the table’[39] Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
In the last sentence, the independent form of a̰kpuː-'crown' is formed by combining this prefix with a base -n which is sometimes (as here) analyzed as a nominalizing suffix. Because words for body parts are inflected for possession, a̰kpuːn'crown' has a third-person singular possessive prefix, linking it to mesa'table', the object on whose crown the book is located (see the section below on Possessive constructions).
Possessive constructions
Possessive constructions in Totonacan languages are marked on the possessed noun rather than on the possessor noun:
The person of the possessor is indicated by a prefix and the number of the possessor by a suffix, as shown by the follow paradigm from Upper Necaxa:[40]
In several of the languages, kinship terms and words referring to parts of the body and objects are inherently possessed—that is, they are obligatorily marked for a possessor. When an inherently possessed noun is used in a generic expression, a special indefinite possessor prefix (ša- in most of the languages that have it) is used—e.g. Upper Necaxa šapúškṵ'an elder brother/elders brothers in general'.[41]
Numerals
Numerals in Totonacan languages are bound roots that require a classificatory prefix which changes based on the type, shape or measure of object being counted. This is illustrated for one of the languages Upper Necaxa Totonac in the table below:[10]
maktin čoʍ ‘one tortilla’
pḛʔtin pa̰ʔɬma̰ ‘one leaf’
ʔentin kḭwḭ ‘one stick’
paːtin ɬa̰mam ‘one pot’
puːlaktin sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘one banana tree’
mustin sḛ́ːʔna' ‘one full bunch of bananas’
kilhmaktin sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘one small bunch of bananas’
heːtin sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘one banana’
maktṵ́ čoʍ ‘two tortillas’
pḛʔtṵ pa̰ʔɬma̰ ‘two leaves’
ʔentṵ kḭwḭ ‘two sticks’
paːtṵ ɬa̰mam ‘two pots’
puːlaktuː sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘two banana trees’
mustṵ sḛ́ːʔna' ‘two full bunches of bananas’
kilhmaktṵ sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘two small bunches of bananas’
heːtṵ sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘two bananas’
maktṵtun čoʍ ‘three tortillas’
pḛʔtṵtun pa̰ʔɬma̰ ‘three leaves’
ʔentṵtun kḭwḭ ‘three sticks’
paːtṵtun ɬa̰mam ‘three pots’
puːlaktṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘three banana trees’
mustṵtun sḛ́ːʔna' ‘three full bunches of bananas’
kilhmaktṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘three small bunches of bananas’
heːtṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘four bananas’
makta̰ːtḭ čoʍ ‘four tortillas’
pḛʔta̰ːtḭ pa̰ʔɬma̰ ‘four leaves’
ʔenta̰ːtḭ kḭwḭ ‘four sticks’
paːta̰ːtḭ ɬa̰mam ‘four pots’
puːtṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘four banana trees’
mustṵtun sḛ́ːʔna' ‘four full bunches of bananas’
kilhmaktṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘four small bunches of bananas’
heːtṵtun sḛ́ːʔna̰ ‘four bananas’
In total, Upper Necaxa has around 30 classificatory prefixes.[10]
The following table compares the numeral bases of six Totonacan languages.
A prominent feature of Totonacan languages is the presence of sound symbolism.[44] The most common (but by no means only) sound-symbolic pattern in Totonacan involves fricative alterations, typically /s/ ~ /š/ ~ /ɬ/ and occasionally /ts/ ~ /č/ ~ /š/ correlated either with increasingly more energetic or forceful action or with the size of an event participant,[45] as in the following examples from Upper Necaxa Totonac:[46]
laŋs ‘hand striking hard’ laŋš ‘blow striking with force’ laŋɬ ‘blow striking with great force’
spipispipi ‘small person or animal trembling’ špipišpipi ‘person or animal shivering or shaking slightly’ ɬpipiɬpipi ‘person or animal shaking or having convulsions’
Comparative as well as language-internal evidence suggests that the pattern of consonantal alternations may have their origins in affixes indicating grade—s- ‘diminutive‘, š- ‘medium’, ɬ- ‘augmentative’).[47] In general, the productivity of the sound-symbolic alternations is highly variable within and across languages of the family, and many languages preserve for a given stem only one of a set of two or three alternates that can be reconstructed for proto-Totonacan.[4]
Totonacan vocabulary
The following selection of Proto-Totonacan reconstructions and descendants is taken from MacKay and Trechsel (2018),[14] using data from several other studies. The reconstructions and descendants are written in Americanist notation.
^Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2023). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (26th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. (2003). Classifiers: A typology of noun categorization devices. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-926466-7.
Andersen, G. P. (2012). "Totonaco del Cerro Xinolatéṕetl". In Levy, Paulette; Beck, David (eds.). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 181–193.
Anonymous (1990), Norman McQuown (ed.), Arte Totonaca, México, D.F.: México, D.F. (Facsimile). (in Spanish)
Arana Osnaya, Evangelina (1953). "Reconstruccion del protototonaco". Revista Mexicana de estudios Antropologicos (in Spanish). 13 (2, 3): 1–10.
Aschmann, H.P. (1946). "Totonaco phonemes". International Journal of American Linguistics. 12 (1): 34–43. doi:10.1086/463885. S2CID224808130.
Beck, David (2004). Upper Necaxa Totonac. Languages of the World/Materials 429. Munich: Lincom. ISBN3-89586-821-3.
Beck, David (2012). "Totonaco de Río Necaxa". In Levy, Paulette; Beck, David (eds.). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 195–267.
Davletshin, Albert (2008). Classification of the Totonacan languages. Paper read at the conference “Problemy izuchenija dal’nego rodstva jazykov (k 55 -leti C. A. Starostina),”. Russian State University for the Humanities, Moscow, March 25–28, 2008.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
de Léon, Lourdes; Levinson, Stephen C. (1992). "Spatial Description in Mesoamerican Languages (Introduction)". Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung. 45 (6): 527–29.
García Rojas, Blanca (1978). Dialectología de la zona totonaco-tepehua (Master’s Thesis) (in Spanish). México D. F.: Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia.
Ichon, Alain (1969). La religión de los totonacos de la sierra (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Instituto Nacional Indigenísta.
Lam, Yvonne (2009). "The straw that broke the language's back: Language shift in the Upper Necaxa Valley of Mexico". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2009 (195): 219–233. doi:10.1515/ijsl.2009.012. S2CID144076249.
Levy, Paulette (1987). Fonologia del Totonaco de Papantla (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Levy, Paulette (1990). Totonaco de Papantla, Veracruz (in Spanish). México, D.F.: El Colegio de México.
Levy, Paulette (1992). "Body Part Prefixes in Papantla Totonac". In de Lourdes, Léon; Levinson, Stephen C. (eds.). Spatial Description in Mesoamerican Languages. pp. 530–542.
Levy, Paulette (1999). "From "part" to "shape": Incorporation in Totonac and the issue of classification by verbs". International Journal of American Linguistics. 65 (2): 127–175. doi:10.1086/466380. S2CID144277772.
Levy, Paulette (2012). "Totonaco de Papantla: El Cerro del Carbón". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 345–466.
Levy, Paulette; Beck, David, eds. (2012). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
MacKay, Carolyn (1999). A Grammar of Misantla Totonac. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. ISBN0-87480-455-8.
MacKay, Carolyn; Trechsel, Frank R. (2012a). "Tepehua de Pisaflores, Veracruz". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 107–118.
MacKay, Carolyn; Trechsel, Frank R. (2012b). "Totonaco de Misantla, Veracruz". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 119–179.
MacKay, C. J.; Trechsel, F. R. (2015). "Totonac-Tepehua genetic relationships". Amerindia. 37 (2): 121–158.
McFarland, Teresa (2012). "Totonaco de Filomeno Mata". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 269–291.
McQuown, Norman (1990) [1940]. Gramatica de la lengua totonaca (Coatepec, Sierra Norte de Puebla). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Mithun, Marianne (1984). "The Evolution of Noun Incorporation". Language. 60 (4): 847–94. doi:10.2307/413800. JSTOR413800.
Reid, A.A.; Bishop, Ruth G. (1974). Diccionario de Totonaco de Xicotepec de Juarez, Puebla (in Spanish). Mexico D.F.: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano (ILV).
Roman Lobato, Gabriela (2012). "Totonaco de San JUan Ozelonacaxtla, Puebla". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 321–344.
Smythe Kung, Susan (2006). "Simbolismo sonoro y lenguaje expresivo en el tepehua de Huehuetla [Sound symbolism and expressive language in Huehuetla Tepehua]". In Morúa, María del Carmen (ed.). Memorias del VIII Encuentro Internacional de Lingüística en el Noroeste, tomo 3 (in Spanish). Hermosillo: Editorial UniSon. pp. 331–354.
Smythe Kung, Susan (2012). "Tepehua de Huehuetla". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 65–106.
Tino, Jorge (2012). "Totonaco de Olintla". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 293–319.
Watters, James K. (2012). "Tepehua de Tlachichilco". In Paulette Levy & David Beck (ed.). Las lenguas totonacas y tepehuas: Textos y otros materiales para sus estudios (in Spanish). México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. pp. 43–64.
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Polish politician Mirosław Pawlak=Mirosław PawlakMember of the SejmIncumbentAssumed office 25 September 2005Constituency33 – Kielce Personal detailsBorn2 April 1942 (1942-04-02) (age 82)NationalityPolishPolitical partyPolish People's Party Mirosław Antoni Pawlak (born 2 April 1942 in Zielonki, Jędrzejów County) is a Polish politician. He was elected to the Sejm on 25 September 2005, getting 6684 votes in 33 Kielce district as a candidate from the Polish People's Party lis...
Park for conservation of nature and usually also for visitors This article is about a kind of natural park. For other uses, see National park (disambiguation). Bogd Khan Uul National Park in Mongolia is one of the earliest preserved areas now called a national park. National parks often allow protected species to flourish. Pictured are alpine ibexes (Capra ibex) in the Gran Paradiso National Park, Piedmont, Italy. The ibex population increased tenfold since the area was declared a national pa...
2012 American film Abducted: The Carlina White StoryWritten byElizabeth HunterDirected byVondie Curtis-HallStarringAunjanue EllisKeke PalmerSherri ShepherdRoger CrossTheme music composerTerence BlanchardCountry of originUnited StatesCanadaOriginal languageEnglishProductionProducersMary MartinCraig PiligianAlan GasnerRunning time90 minutesProduction companyPilgrim Studios[1]Original releaseNetworkLifetimeReleaseOctober 6, 2012 (2012-10-06) Abducted: The Carlina White Sto...
بطولة أمريكا المفتوحة 2012 - الزوجي المختلط جزء من أمريكا المفتوحة 2012 البلد الولايات المتحدة التاريخ 2012 الرياضة كرة المضرب حامل(ة) اللقب ميلاني أودين وجاك سوك البطل(ة) إيكاترينا ماكاروفا برونو سواريز الوصيف(ة) كفيتا بيشكه مارسين ماتكوفسكي النتيجة 6–7(8–10)، 6–1، [1...
BrazilAssociationCBVConfederationCSVUniforms Home Away Third Youth Olympic GamesAppearancesNoneFIVB U19 World ChampionshipAppearances15 (First in 1989)Best result Champions : (1989, 1991, 1993, 1995, 2001, 2003) The Brazil men's national under-19 volleyball team represents Brazil in international men's volleyball competitions and friendly matches under the age 19 and it is ruled by the Brazilian Volleyball Federation that is a member of South American volleyball body Confederación Suda...
