Voiceless velar fricative

Voiceless velar fricative
Voiceless velar fricative
x
IPA Number	140
Audio sample
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Encoding
Entity (decimal)	x
Unicode (hex)	U+0078
X-SAMPA	x
Braille

The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in some dialects of English, most notably in Scottish English, e.g. in loch, broch or saugh (willow).

The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨x⟩, the Latin letter x. It is also used in broad transcription instead of the symbol ⟨χ⟩, the Greek chi, for the voiceless uvular fricative.

There is also a voiceless post-velar fricative (also called pre-uvular) in some languages, which can be transcribed as [x̠] or [χ̟]. For voiceless pre-velar fricative (also called post-palatal), see voiceless palatal fricative.

Some scholars also posit the voiceless velar approximant distinct from the fricative, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɰ̊⟩, but this symbol is not suitable in case of the voiceless velar approximant that is unspecified for rounding (the sound represented by the symbol ⟨ɰ̊⟩ is specified as unrounded), which is best transcribed as ⟨x̞⟩, ⟨ɣ̞̊⟩ or ⟨ɣ̊˕⟩ - see voiced velar approximant. The velar approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the voiceless variant of the close back unrounded vowel ⟨ɯ̊⟩.

Features

Features of the voiceless velar fricative:

Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence.
Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue (the dorsum) at the soft palate.
Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.
It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Varieties

IPA	Description
x	plain velar fricative
xʷ	labialised
xʼ	ejective
xʷʼ	ejective labialised
x̜ʷ	semi-labialised
x̹ʷ	strongly labialised
xʲ	palatalised
xʲʼ	ejective palatalised

Occurrence

The voiceless velar fricative and its labialized variety are postulated to have occurred in Proto-Germanic, the ancestor of the Germanic languages, as the reflex of the Proto-Indo-European voiceless palatal and velar stops and the labialized voiceless velar stop. Thus Proto-Indo-European *ḱr̥nom "horn" and *kʷód "what" became Proto-Germanic *hurnan and *hwat, where *h and *hw were likely [x] and [xʷ]. This sound change is part of Grimm's law.

In Modern Greek, the voiceless velar fricative (with its allophone, the voiceless palatal fricative [ç], occurring before front vowels) originated from the Ancient Greek voiceless aspirated stop /kʰ/ in a sound change that lenited Greek aspirated stops into fricatives.

Language		Word	IPA	Meaning	Notes
Abaza		хьзы / kh'zy	[xʲzə]	'name'
Adyghe		хы / khy	[xəː]^ⓘ	'six'
Afrikaans		groot	[χrʊət]	'big'
Albanian		gjuha	[ɟuxɑ]	'language'	Allophone of /h/. See Albanian phonology
Aleut	Atkan dialect	alax	[ɑlɑx]	'two'
Arabic	Modern Standard	ﺧﻀراء	[xadˤraːʔ]	'green' (f.)	May be velar, post-velar or uvular, depending on dialect.^[1] See Arabic phonology
Armenian		խրոխտ	[χəˈɾoχt]	'brave'
Assamese		অসমীয়া	[ɔxɔmia]	'Assamese'
Assyrian		ܚܡܫܐ ḳemša	[xεmʃa]	'five'
Avar		чeхь / ҫeẋ	[tʃex]	'belly'
Azerbaijani		xoş / хош/ﺧﻮش	[xoʃ]	'pleasant'
Basque	Some speakers^[2]	jan	[xän]	'to eat'	Either velar or post-velar.^[2] For other speakers it's [j ~ ʝ ~ ɟ].^[3]
Brahui^[4]		ﺧﻦ	[xan]	'eye'	Corresponds to /x/ in Kurukh and /q/ in Malto.
Breton		hor c'hi	[hor xiː]	'our dog'
Bulgarian		тихо / tiho	[ˈt̪ixo]^ⓘ	'quietly'	Described as having "only slight friction" ([x̞]).^[5]
Catalan		kharja	[ˈxɑɾ(d)ʑɐ]	'kharjah'	Found in loanwords and interjections. See Catalan phonology
Chechen		хан / xan	[xɑːn]	'time'
Chinese	Mandarin	河 / hé	[xɤ˧˥]	'river'	See Standard Chinese phonology
Czech		chlap	[xlap]	'guy'	See Czech phonology
Danish	Southern Jutlandic	kage	[ˈkʰaːx]	'cake'	See Sønderjysk dialect
Dutch	Standard Belgian^[6]^[7]	acht	[ɑxt]	'eight'	May be post-palatal [ç̠] instead. In dialects spoken above the rivers Rhine, Meuse and Waal the corresponding sound is a postvelar-uvular fricative trill [ʀ̝̊˖].^[7] See Dutch phonology and Hard and soft G in Dutch
Dutch	Southern Netherlands accents^[7]^[8]	acht	[ɑxt]	'eight'
English	Scottish	loch	[ɫɔx]	'loch'	Younger speakers may merge this sound with /k/.^[9]^[10] See Scottish English phonology
	Irish	lough	[lɑx]	'lough'	Occurs only in Gaelic borrowings. See Irish English phonology
	Scouse^[11]	book	[bʉːx]	'book'	A syllable-final allophone of /k/ (lenition).
Esperanto		monaĥo	[moˈnaxo]	'monk'	See Esperanto phonology
Estonian		jah	[jɑx]	'yes'	Allophone of /h/. See Estonian phonology
Eyak		duxł	[tʊxɬ]	'traps'
Finnish		kahvi	[ˈkɑxʋi]	'coffee'	Allophone of /h/. See Finnish phonology
French		jota	[xɔta]	'jota'	Occurs only in loanwords (from Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, etc.). See French phonology
Georgian^[12]		ჯოხი / joxi	[ˈdʒɔxi]	'stick'
German		Buch	[buːx]^ⓘ	'book'	See Standard German phonology
Greek		τέχνη / téchnî	[ˈte̞xni]	'art'	See Modern Greek phonology
Hebrew	Biblical	מִיכָאֵל/micha'el	[mixaʔel]	'Michael'	See Biblical Hebrew phonology
Hindustani	Hindi	ख़ुशी/khushii/k͟hushī	[xʊʃiː]	'happiness'	Occurs only in loanwords. May be replaced in Hindi with /kʰ/. See Hindustani phonology
Hindustani	Urdu	ﺧﻮشی/khushii/k͟hushī	[xʊʃiː]	'happiness'
Hungarian		sahhal	[ʃɒxːɒl]	'with a shah'	See Hungarian phonology
Icelandic		október	[ˈɔxtoːupɛr̥]	'October'	See Icelandic phonology
Indonesian		khas	[xas]	'typical'	Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Often pronounced as [h] or [k] by some Indonesians. See Indonesian phonology
Irish		deoch	[dʲɔ̝̈x]	'drink'	See Irish phonology
Japanese		マッハ / mahha	[maxːa]	'Mach'	Allophone of /h/.^[13] See Japanese phonology
Kabardian		хы / khy	[xəː]^ⓘ	'sea'
Kazakh		ханзада / hanzada	[xanzada]	'prince'
Korean		흥정 / heungjeong	[xɯŋd͡ʑʌ̹ŋ]	'bargaining'	Allophone of /h/ before /ɯ/. See Korean phonology
Kurdish		xanî	[xɑːˈniː]	'house'	See Kurdish phonology
Kurukh^[14]		कुड़ुख़	[kuɽux]	'Kurukh'	Corresponds to /x/ in Brahui and /q/ in Malto.
Limburgish^[15]^[16]		loch	[lɔx]	'air'	The example word is from the Maastrichtian dialect. See Maastrichtian dialect phonology and Hard and soft G in Dutch
Lishan Didan	Urmi Dialect	חלבא / xalwa	[xalwɑ]	'milk'	Generally post-velar
Lithuanian		choras	[ˈxɔrɐs̪]	'choir'	Occurs only in loanwords (usually international words)
Lojban		xatra	[xatra]	'letter'
Macedonian		Охрид / Ohrid	[ˈɔxrit]^ⓘ	'Ohrid'	See Macedonian phonology
Malay		اﺧير / akhir	[axir]	'last', 'end'	Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Often pronounced as [h] or [k]. See Malay phonology
Manx		aashagh	[ˈɛːʒax]	'easy'
Nepali		आँखा	[ä̃xä]	'eye'	Allophone of /kʰ/. See Nepali phonology
Norwegian	Urban East^[17]	hat	[xɑːt]	'hate'	Possible allophone of /h/ near back vowels; can be voiced [ɣ] between two voiced sounds.^[17] See Norwegian phonology
Norwegian	Brekke dialect^[18]	seg	[sɛɰ̊]	'oneself'	Also described as an approximant. Coda allophone of /ɡ/; reported to occur only in this word.^[18] See Norwegian phonology
	Kaldfarnes dialect^[18]		[sɛɰ̊]
	Sørkjosen dialect^[18]		[sæɰ̊]
	Undheim dialect^[18]		[seɰ̊]
	Bryne dialect^[18]	sterkaste, sterkeste	[ˈstæɰ̊kɑstə]	'strongest'	Also described as an approximant. Allophone of /r/ when it is in contact with voiceless consonants. Exact distribution may differ between dialects. In the Hafrsfjord dialect, [ɰ̊] may also occur in the word seg. See Norwegian phonology
	Hafrsfjord dialect^[18]
	Raundalen dialect^[18]
	Stanghelle dialect^[18]
	Fyllingsdalen dialect^[18]		[ˈstæɰ̊kestɛ]
Pashto		اخته / axta	[ax.t̪a]	'occupied'	See Pashto phonology
Persian		دُخـتَر / dokhtar	[dox'tær]	'daughter'	See Persian phonology
Polish^[19]		chleb	[xlɛp]	'bread'	Also (in great majority of dialects) represented orthographically by ⟨h⟩. See Polish phonology
Portuguese	Fluminense	arte	[ˈaxtɕi]	'art'	In free variation with [χ], [ʁ], [ħ] and [h] before voiceless consonants
Portuguese	General Brazilian^[20]	rosa	[ˈxɔzɐ]	'rose'	Some dialects. An allophone of /ʁ/. See Portuguese phonology
Punjabi	Gurmukhi	ਖ਼ਬਰ/khabar	[xəbəɾ]	'news'
Punjabi	Shahmukhi	ﺧﺒر/khabar	[xəbəɾ]	'news'
Romanian		hram	[xräm]	'patronal feast of a church'	Allophone of /h/. See Romanian phonology
Russian^[21]		хороший / khoroshiy	[xɐˈr̠ʷo̞ʂɨ̞j]^ⓘ	'good'	See Russian phonology
Scottish Gaelic^[22]		drochaid	[ˈt̪ɾɔxɪtʲ]	'bridge'	See Scottish Gaelic phonology
Serbo-Croatian		храст / hrast	[xrâːst]	'oak'	See Serbo-Croatian phonology
Slovak		chlap	[xɫäp]	'guy'
Slovene	Standard	pohlep	[poˈxlɛ̂p]	'greed'	See Slovene phonology
Slovene	Some dialects	bog	[ˈbôːx]	'god'	Allophone of /ɣ/ before voiceless obstruents or pause. See Slovene phonology
Somali		khad	[xad]	'ink'	Also occurs allophone of /q/ in Arabic loan words. See Somali phonology
Spanish^[23]	Latin American^[24]	ojo	[ˈo̞xo̞]	'eye'	May be glottal instead;^[24] in northern and central Spain it is often post-velar^[24]^[25]^[26] or uvular /χ/.^[26]^[27] See Spanish phonology
Spanish^[23]	Southern Spain^[24]	ojo	[ˈo̞xo̞]	'eye'
Spanish	Standard European^[28]	Predrag	[ˈpɾe̞ð̞ɾäɣ̞̊]	'Predrag'	Also described as an approximant. Allophone of /ɡ/ before a pause.^[28] See Spanish phonology
Sylheti		ꠈꠛꠞ/khabar	[xɔ́bɔɾ]	'news'
Tagalog		bakit	[baxit]	'why'	Allophone of /k/ in intervocalic positions. See Tagalog phonology
Toda^[29]		pax	[pax]	'smoke'
Turkish^[30]		ıhlamur	[ɯxlamuɾ]	'linden'	Allophone of /h/.^[30] See Turkish phonology
Turkmen		hile	[xiːle]	'cunning' (noun)
Tyap		kham	[xam]	1. 'calabash'; 2. 'prostitute'
Xhosa		rhoxisa	[xɔkǁiːsa]	'to cancel'
Ukrainian		хлопець / khlopets'	[ˈxɫɔ̝pɛt͡sʲ]	'boy'	See Ukrainian phonology
Uzbek^[31]		oxirgi	[ɒxirgi]	'last'	Post-velar. Occurs in environments different from word-initially and pre-consonantally, otherwise it is pre-velar.^[31]
Welsh		chwaer	[χwai̯r]	'sister'
Vietnamese^[32]		không	[xəwŋ͡m˧]	'no', 'not', 'zero'	See Vietnamese phonology
Yaghan		xan	[xan]	'here'
Yi		ꉾ / he	[xɤ˧]	'good'
Zapotec	Tilquiapan^[33]	mejor	[mɘxoɾ]	'better'	Used primarily in loanwords from Spanish

Notes

^ Watson (2002), pp. 17, 19–20, 35–36 and 38.
^ ^a ^b Hualde & Ortiz de Urbina (2003), pp. 16 and 26.
^ Hualde & Ortiz de Urbina (2003), p. 16.
^ Bhadriraju Krishnamurti (2003), p. 100.
^ Ternes, Elmer; Vladimirova-Buhtz, Tatjana (1999). "Bulgarian". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0.
^ Verhoeven (2005:243)
^ ^a ^b ^c Collins & Mees (2003:191)
^ Gussenhoven (1999:74)
^ "Annexe 4: Linguistic Variables". Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2014-12-03.
^ "University of Essex :: Department of Language and Linguistics :: Welcome". Essex.ac.uk. Retrieved 2013-08-01.
^ Wells (1982:373)
^ Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.
^ Okada, Hideo (December 1991). "Japanese". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 21 (2): 94–96. doi:10.1017/S002510030000445X. S2CID 242782215. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
^ Bhadriraju Krishnamurti (2003), p. 74.
^ Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999:159)
^ Peters (2006:119)
^ ^a ^b Vanvik (1979), p. 40.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j "Nordavinden og sola: Opptak og transkripsjoner av norske dialekter". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2015.
^ Jassem (2003), p. 103.
^ Barbosa & Albano (2004), pp. 5–6.
^ Padgett (2003), p. 42.
^ Oftedal, M. (1956) The Gaelic of Leurbost. Oslo. Norsk Tidskrift for Sprogvidenskap.
^ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 255.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Chen (2007), p. 13.
^ Hamond (2001:?), cited in Scipione & Sayahi (2005:128)
^ ^a ^b Lyons (1981), p. 76.
^ Harris & Vincent (1988), p. 83.
^ ^a ^b Wetzels & Mascaró (2001), p. 224.
^ Bhadriraju Krishnamurti (2003), p. 149.
^ ^a ^b Göksel & Kerslake (2005:6)
^ ^a ^b Sjoberg (1963), pp. 11–12.
^ Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.
^ Merrill (2008), p. 109.

References

Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.1365, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11
Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 227–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756
Chen, Yudong (2007), A Comparison of Spanish Produced by Chinese L2 Learners and Native Speakers---an Acoustic Phonetics Approach, ISBN 9780549464037
Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-9004103405
Göksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005), Turkish: a comprehensive grammar, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415114943
Gussenhoven, Carlos (1999), "Dutch", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 74–77, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0
Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2): 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526, S2CID 145782045
Hamond, Robert M. (2001), The Sounds of Spanish: Analysis and Application, Cascadilla Press, ISBN 978-1-57473-018-0
Harris, Martin; Vincent, Nigel (1988), "Spanish", The Romance Languages, Taylor & Francis, pp. 79–130, ISBN 978-0-415-16417-7
Hualde, José Ignacio; Ortiz de Urbina, Jon (2003), A Grammar of Basque, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-017683-4
Jassem, Wiktor (2003), "Polish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 103–107, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001191
Bhadriraju Krishnamurti (2003). The Dravidian languages. Oxford University Press.
Lyons, John (1981), Language and Linguistics: An Introduction, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-54088-9
Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373
Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344
Padgett, Jaye (2003), "Contrast and Post-Velar Fronting in Russian", Natural Language & Linguistic Theory, 21 (1): 39–87, doi:10.1023/A:1021879906505, S2CID 13470826
Peters, Jörg (2006), "The dialect of Hasselt", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (1): 117–124, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002428
Scipione, Ruth; Sayahi, Lotfi (2005), "Consonantal Variation of Spanish in Northern Morocco" (PDF), in Sayahi, Lotfi; Westmoreland, Maurice (eds.), Selected Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project
Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), "Standard Georgian" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 255–264, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002659
Sjoberg, Andrée F. (1963), Uzbek Structural Grammar, Uralic and Altaic Series, vol. 18, Bloomington: Indiana University
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Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 978-82-990584-0-7
Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 243–247, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002173
Watson, Kevin (2007), "Liverpool English" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 351–360, doi:10.1017/s0025100307003180
Watson, Janet C. E. (2002), The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic, New York: Oxford University Press
Wells, J.C. (1982), Accents of English 2: The British Isles, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
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External links

List of languages with [x] on PHOIBLE

[FOOTNOTEWatson200217,_19–20,_35–36_and_38-1] Watson (2002), pp. 17, 19–20, 35–36 and 38.

[FOOTNOTEHualdeOrtiz_de_Urbina200316_and_26-2] Hualde & Ortiz de Urbina (2003), pp. 16 and 26.

[FOOTNOTEHualdeOrtiz_de_Urbina200316-3] Hualde & Ortiz de Urbina (2003), p. 16.

[FOOTNOTEBhadriraju_Krishnamurti2003100-4] Bhadriraju Krishnamurti (2003), p. 100.

[5] Ternes, Elmer; Vladimirova-Buhtz, Tatjana (1999). "Bulgarian". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0.

[6] Verhoeven (2005:243)

[cm-7] Collins & Mees (2003:191)

[gus-8] Gussenhoven (1999:74)

[glaswegian-9] "Annexe 4: Linguistic Variables". Archived from the original on 2021-02-25. Retrieved 2014-12-03.

[10] "University of Essex :: Department of Language and Linguistics :: Welcome". Essex.ac.uk. Retrieved 2013-08-01.

[11] Wells (1982:373)

[FOOTNOTEShostedChikovani2006255-12] Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255.

[Japanese-13] Okada, Hideo (December 1991). "Japanese". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 21 (2): 94–96. doi:10.1017/S002510030000445X. S2CID 242782215. Retrieved 14 July 2022.

[FOOTNOTEBhadriraju_Krishnamurti200374-14] Bhadriraju Krishnamurti (2003), p. 74.

[15] Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999:159)

[16] Peters (2006:119)

[FOOTNOTEVanvik197940-17] Vanvik (1979), p. 40.

[nos-18] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j "Nordavinden og sola: Opptak og transkripsjoner av norske dialekter". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2015.

[FOOTNOTEJassem2003103-19] Jassem (2003), p. 103.

[FOOTNOTEBarbosaAlbano20045–6-20] Barbosa & Albano (2004), pp. 5–6.

[FOOTNOTEPadgett200342-21] Padgett (2003), p. 42.

[22] Oftedal, M. (1956) The Gaelic of Leurbost. Oslo. Norsk Tidskrift for Sprogvidenskap.

[FOOTNOTEMartínez-CeldránFernández-PlanasCarrera-Sabaté2003255-23] Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003), p. 255.

[FOOTNOTEChen200713-24] Chen (2007), p. 13.

[25] Hamond (2001:?), cited in Scipione & Sayahi (2005:128)

[FOOTNOTELyons198176-26] Lyons (1981), p. 76.

[FOOTNOTEHarrisVincent198883-27] Harris & Vincent (1988), p. 83.

[FOOTNOTEWetzelsMascaró2001224-28] Wetzels & Mascaró (2001), p. 224.

[FOOTNOTEBhadriraju_Krishnamurti2003149-29] Bhadriraju Krishnamurti (2003), p. 149.

[gk6-30] Göksel & Kerslake (2005:6)

[FOOTNOTESjoberg196311–12-31] Sjoberg (1963), pp. 11–12.

[FOOTNOTEThompson1959458–461-32] Thompson (1959), pp. 458–461.

[FOOTNOTEMerrill2008109-33] Merrill (2008), p. 109.

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Voiceless velar fricative

Features

Varieties

Occurrence

See also

Notes

References

External links

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Enrique Peñaranda

Admiral of the Navy

Wirtschaftsförderungsinstitut

أعمال الرسل

Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial

Founding Farmers

Parque natural nacional de Yavorivski

Little black dress