Some distinctive features of Catalan among Romance languages include the general lack of masculine markers (like Italian -o), a trait shared with French and Occitan; and the fact that the remote preterite tense of verbs is usually formed with a periphrasis consisting of the verb "to go" plus infinitive.
Articles
Catalan has two types of article, definite and indefinite. They are declined for gender and number, and must agree with the noun they qualify. As with other Romance languages, Catalan articles are subject to complex elision and contraction processes.
The inflection of articles is complex, especially because of frequent elision, but is similar to neighboring languages.[2] Catalan has more preposition–article contractions than Spanish, like dels ("of + the [plural]"), but fewer than Italian (which has sul, col, nel, etc.).[2]
Definite
The tables below summarize the forms of the definite article, its elisions, and its contractions.
Definite article (elided forms in brackets)
masculine
feminine
singular
el (l')
la (l')
plural
els
les
Contractions of the definite article
preposition
a
de
per
article
el
al (a l')
del (de l')
pel (per l')
els
als
dels
pels
Masculine forms
The masculine singular form is el. The initial vowel is elided before a vowel or h, yielding to l'.[3]
El pare. L'avi.
"The father." "The grandfather."
El is not elided if the word begins with semivocalic(h)i-[j].[3]
El iode. El hiat.
"The iodine." "The hiatus"
The masculine plural form is els. Both el and els combine with the prepositions a "to", de "of", and per "for", yielding the contractionsal, als, del, dels, pel, pels.[3]
Ho dic al pare.
"I say it to the father." ("I say it to my father")
Això és del noi.
"This is of the boy." ("This belongs to the boy")
Corria pels camins.
"I ran through the paths." ("I ran along the paths")
El does not contract with the aforementioned prepositions if the following word begins with vowel or h.[3]
Porta-ho a l'avi.
"Bring this to the grandfather."
Baixa de l'arbre.
"Get down from the tree."
Feminine forms
The feminine singular form is la. The final vowel is elided before a vowel or h, yielding l'.[4]
La mare. L'àvia
"The mother." "The grandmother"
La is not contracted if the word begins with unstressed (h)i-, or (h)u-.[4]
La idea. La hipòtesi. La unitat. La humitat.
"The idea." "The hypothesis." "The unit." "The humidity."
La is not elided with the words una "one (hour)", host "hueste", and ira "wrath"; as well as with words beginning with the Greek prefix a-, like asimetria "asymmetry".[4]
The feminine plural form is les.
Feminine articles are not contracted with prepositions.[4]
Articles for personal names
Forenames and surnames must carry a definite article. In addition to the ordinary singular forms, alternative forms derived from the Latin vocative domine can be used. The elision rules are the same for el and la.
Personal article (elided forms in brackets)
masculine
feminine
en (n')
na (n')
El Joan. L'Andreu. La Mercè. La Isabel. L'Olga.
En Joan. N'Andreu. Na Mercè. Na Isabel. N'Olga.
Dialectal variation
In Western Catalonia the dialectal versions lo and los are used instead of el and els.[3]
In some regions, especially in the Balearic islands, the definite article derives from the Latin determiner ipse. These forms are referred to as articles salats. Similar forms are found in Sardinian and some varieties of Occitan.
Balearic definite article
masculine
feminine
singular
es (s')
sa (s')
plural
es, ets
ses
Balearic definite article + amb (with)
masculine
feminine
singular
amb so
amb sa (amb s')
plural
amb sos
amb ses
Indefinite
The table below summarize the forms of the indefinite article. Indefinite articles are not elided nor contracted.
Indefinite article
masculine
feminine
singular
un
una
plural
uns
unes
Overview of gender and number inflection
Most adjectives, and a fair number of nouns, inflect for gender. This usually follows a regular pattern of endings. The two main patterns are generally referred to as "four-form" and "two-form" adjectives. Four-form adjectives have distinct masculine and feminine forms, whereas two-form adjectives have the same form for both masculine and feminine. They are derived from the Latin first/second, and the third declension respectively. Many nouns follow the four-form inflection, but some may follow the two-form inflection. Some are irregular in some way.
Four-form adjective verd ("green")
masculine
feminine
singular
verd
verda
plural
verds
verdes
Two-form adjective indiferent ("indifferent")
masculine
feminine
singular
indiferent
plural
indiferents
Similar to French, but unlike Portuguese, Spanish or Italian, the Latin/Romance final -o and -e have disappeared. Thus, the alternance of -o/-a in the four-form words has been substituted by -/-a.[5] There are only a few exceptions, like minso/minsa ("scarce").[5]
Among nouns, Catalan has few suppletive couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French. Thus, Catalan has noi/noia ("boy"/"girl") and gall/gallina ("cock"/"chicken"), whereas French has garçon/fille and coq/poule. [5]
There is a tendency to inflect adjectives as four-form instead of two-form, something that is prevalent in Occitan and standard in French. Thus, alongside traditional two-form bullent/bullent ("boiling"), one can also find four-form bullent/bullenta.[5]
Variants
Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur between masculine and feminine, like:[5]
Affrication: boig/boja ("insane") vs. lleig/lletja ("ugly")
Loss of n: pla/plana ("flat") vs. segon/segona ("second")
In words that end in a sibilant sound, the masculine plural ending is -os instead of just -s. Feminines still have -es or, if they follow the two-form declension, no ending at all. Compare: el pols/els polsos ("the pulse"/"the pulses") vs. la pols/les pols ("the dust"/"the dusts").[6]
Adjectives that end in -ç follow the two-form declension in the singular, but four-form in the plural, so that they actually have three forms:
Catalan nouns are inflected for gender (masculine or feminine), and number (singular or plural). There is no case inflection. Articles and adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they refer to.
Usually, masculine nouns are unmarked, feminine nouns carry the suffix -a; and the plural is marked with the suffix -s, which makes the feminine ending turn into -e-. Thus, the most common declension paradigm for Catalan names is the one that follows:
Example: declension of gat "cat"
masculine
feminine
singular
gat
gata
plural
gats
gates
Gender inflection
The grammatical gender of a Catalan noun does not necessarily correspond with the real-life object's biological sex (or lack thereof). Nouns denoting a person, such as home "man" or dona "woman", generally agree with the natural gender of what is described. However, Catalan assigns gender to nouns without natural gender in arbitrary fashion. For example, the word tamboret ("stool") is masculine, while the word cadira ("chair") is feminine.
Living beings with distinct masculine and feminine forms
Living beings of the same species usually are designed by two nouns: one of masculine grammatical gender for biologically male individuals, and one of feminine grammatical gender for biologically female individuals. Both names, masculine and feminine, are usually only differentiated by their ending; sometimes the second is derived from the first or vice versa. Rarely, both come from different roots.[7]
Formation of the feminine form from the masculine
Most times the feminine form is created by appending the suffix -a to the unmarked masculine form.[7]
Noi → noia. Avi → àvia.
"Boy – girl." "Grandfather – grandmother."
If the masculine form ends in -t, -p, -f, -s, the addition of the feminine suffix -a may cause these consonants to become voiced to -d-, -b-, -v-, -s-; or not. There are no rules to deduce the change.[7]
becomes voiced
remains unvoiced
change
masculine
feminine
gloss
masculine
feminine
gloss
⟨-t⟩ → ⟨-d-⟩ /t/ → /ð/
nebot
neboda
"nephew – niece"
nét
neta
"grandson – granddaughter"
⟨-p⟩ → ⟨-b-⟩ /p/ → /β/
llop
lloba
"wolf"
⟨-f⟩ → ⟨-v-⟩ /f/ → /v~β/
serf
serva
"serf"
⟨-s⟩ → ⟨-s-⟩ /s/ → /z/
espòs
esposa
"husband – wife"
gos
gossa
"dog – bitch"
If the masculine form ends in a stressed vowel, the feminine is created by appending the suffix -na.[7]
Germà → germana
"Brother – sister."
Sometimes the feminine form is created by appending the suffix -essa to the unmarked masculine form.[7]
Sacerdot → sacerdotessa.
"Priest – priestess."
Formation of the masculine form from the feminine
Sometimes the masculine form is created from the feminine by changing the suffix a for -ot.[8]
Bruixot ← bruixa.
"Sorcerer — witch."
Living beings with indistinct masculine and feminine forms
Sometimes a single noun is used to designate both masculine and feminine beings. To specify the biological gender of the being, the adjectives mascle "male", and femella "female" are used.[8]
El rossinyol. El rossinyol mascle. El rossinyol femella.
" The nightingale." "The male nightingale." "The female nightingale"
Objects, abstract concepts
Since objects and abstract concepts have no biological gender, all of them only have one form. The gender of inanimate nouns is assigned arbitrarily. Sometimes the choice may seem contradictory.
La virilitat (f).
"The manliness."
Sometimes synonymous words may have different genders.
El televisor (m) – la televisió (f). L'argent (m) – la plata (f)
"The TV." "The silver."
Homophonous words with different genders
Some homonymous words may have different genders according to their meaning.[8]
El clau (m) – la clau (f)
"The nail – the key."
Number inflection
Like all the Western Romance languages, the formation of the plural involves the addition of the suffix -s to the singular. However, the stem may undergo some changes. The number inflection of adjectives follows the same rules.[9]
Most times the plural form is created by appending the suffix -s to the singular form.[10]
Pare → pares. Avi → avis.
"Father – fathers." "Grandfather – grandfathers."
If the singular ends in -a, the plural is usually formed with -es. Most of these nouns are feminine, but some are masculine.[10]
Casa → cases (f). Problema → problemes (m).
"House – houses." "Problem – problems"
However, if the singular ends in -ga, -ca, -gua, -qua, -ça, -ja, the plural is formed by -gues, -ques, -gües, -qües, -ces, -ges. This is done for orthographical reasons, and stem pronunciation remains identical in the singular and plural.[10]
sound
transformation
singular (stem underlined)
plural (stem underlined)
IPA transcription
gloss
/ɣ/
⟨g⟩ → ⟨gu⟩
farga
fargues
/ˈfaɾɡə/, /ˈfaɾɡəs/ /ˈfaɾɡa/, /ˈfaɾɡes/
"forge(s)"
/k/
⟨c⟩ → ⟨qu⟩
oca
oques
/ˈɔkə/, /ˈɔkəs/ /ˈɔka/, /ˈɔkes/
"goose – geese"
/ɣw/
⟨gu⟩ → ⟨gü⟩
llengua
llengües
/ˈʎeŋɡwə/, /ˈʎeŋɡwəs/ /ˈʎeŋɡwa/, /ˈʎeŋɡwes/
"tongue(s)"
/kw/
⟨qu⟩ → ⟨qü⟩
pasqua
pasqües
/ˈpaskwə/, /ˈpaskwəs/ /ˈpaskwa/, /ˈpaskwes/
"Easter(s)"
/s/
⟨ç⟩ → ⟨c⟩
plaça
places
/ˈplasə/, /ˈplasəs/ /ˈplasa/, /ˈplases/
"square(s)"
/ʒ/ /d͡ʒ/
⟨j⟩ → ⟨g⟩
pluja
pluges
/ˈpluʒə/, /ˈpluʒəs/ /ˈplud͡ʒa/, /ˈplud͡ʒes/
"rain(s)"
/d͡ʒ/ /d͡ʒː/
platja
platges
/ˈplad͡ʒə/, /ˈplad͡ʒəs/ /ˈplad͡ːʒa/, /ˈplad͡ːʒes/
"beach(es)"
If the singular form ends in a stressed vowel, the plural is usually created by appending the suffix -ns.[10]
However, some words ending in a stressed vowel form their plural in -s.[10] Many of them are relatively recent loanwords not directly inherited from late Latin.
Sofà → sofàs. Bambú → bambús.
"Sofa – sofas." "Bamboo – bamboos."
A few nouns ending in unstressed -e can also form their plural alternatively in -ns. It is considered archaic or dialectal.[11]
Home → homes or hòmens. Orfe → orfes or òrfens
"Man – men." "Orphan – orphans."
Many masculine nouns ending in -s, ç form their plural with -os. -s- becomes voiced in the plural, but -ç- remains unvoiced.[11]
Masculine paroxytone and proparoxytone nouns ending in -s are invariable.[13]
Llapis → llapis. Òmnibus – òmnibus
"Pencil – pencils." "Omnibus – omnibuses."
Feminine nouns ending in an s-like sound (-s, -ç, -x, -z) have a plural that is pronounced the same as the singular. If the noun ends in -s, no ending is added.[13] Otherwise, an unpronounced -s is added.[11]
Pols → pols.
"Dust – dusts."
Calç → calçs/ˈkals/.
"Lime – limes."
Nouns ending in -x pronounced /ks/ form plurals according to word stress. If the noun is stressed on the last syllable, the plural suffix is -os. Otherwise, the ending is -s and the plural form is homophonous with the singular.[13]
Feminine nouns ending in -st always form the plural by adding -s.[13]
Host → hosts.
"Army – armies."
Adjectives
A Catalan adjective must agree in gender and number with the noun it accompanies. Most adjectives are placed after the nouns. Adjectives can be divided into three declension paradigms. The number inflection rules are the same as the nouns.
Declension
Catalan adjectives can be divided in three groups according to the distinct forms it has.
Adjective with 4 forms: verd "green"
masculine
feminine
singular
verd
verda
plural
verds
verdes
Adjective with 3 forms: feliç "happy"
masculine
feminine
singular
feliç
plural
feliços
felices
Adjective with 2 forms: indiferent "indifferent"
masculine
feminine
singular
indiferent
plural
indiferents
Formation of the feminine singular from the masculine singular
In adjectives with distinct feminine singular form, the masculine is usually unmarked for gender, and ends in a consonant. The feminine singular form of regular adjectives can be created from the masculine singular.
Unmarked masculine forms
Most times the feminine form is created by appending the suffix -a to the unmarked masculine form.[14]
Sec – seca. Fred – freda. Continu – contínua.
"Dry." "Cold." "Continuous."
If the masculine form ends in -t, -c, -s, the addition of the feminine suffix -a may cause these consonants to become voiced to -d-, -g-, -s-; or not. There are no rules governing this change.[15]
Voicing alternations
becomes voiced
remains unvoiced
change
masculine
feminine
gloss
masculine
feminine
gloss
⟨-t⟩ → ⟨-d-⟩ /t/ → /ð/
buit
buida
"empty"
lent
lenta
"slow"
⟨-c⟩ → ⟨-g-⟩ /k/ → /ɣ/
groc
groga
"yellow"
ric
rica
"rich"
⟨-s⟩ → ⟨-s-⟩ /s/ → /z/
obès
obesa
"obese"
gras
grassa
"fat"
If the masculine form ends in a stressed vowel, the feminine is created by appending the suffix -na.; except nu "nude" and cru "raw".[16]
Pla – plana. Rodó – rodona.
"Flat." "Round."
If the masculine form ends in -au, -eu, -iu, and -ou; the feminine is formed with -ava, -ea, -iva, and -ova.[16]
Degrees of comparison are expressed with a construction implying the adverb més "more" or menys "less":
Més ... que ("more ... than")
Sóc més alt que tu.
"I am taller than you."
El més ... de ("the most ... of")
Sóc el més alt de tots
"I am the tallest of all".
Menys ... que ("less ... than")
Sóc menys alt que tu.
"I am less tall than you."
Absolute superlative
Like many other Romance languages, Catalan adjectives have an absolute superlative form, expressed with the suffix -íssim, placed between the stem and the gender / number suffix.
Aquest home és altíssim.
"This man is very very tall."
Aquestes dones són altíssimes.
"These women are very very tall."
Adverbs
Catalan adverbs, like their English counterparts, are used to modify adjectives, other adverbs, and verbs or clauses. They do not display any inflection; that is, their form does not change to reflect their precise role, nor any characteristics of what they modify.
Formation
In Catalan, as in English, most adverbs are derived from adjectives. In most cases, this is done by adding the suffix -ment ("-ly") to the adjective's feminine singular form. For example, the feminine singular form of lent ("slow") is lenta, so the corresponding adverb is lentament ("slowly").
As in English, however, the adjective stem is sometimes modified to accommodate the suffix:
And, as in English, many common adverbs are not derived from adjectives at all:
així ("thus", "so").
ahir ("yesterday").
Placement
The placement of Catalan adverbs is almost the same as the placement of English adverbs.
An adverb that modifies an adjective or adverb comes before that adjective or adverb:
completament cert ("completely true").
massa ben fet ("too well done").
An adverb that modifies an infinitive (verbal noun) generally comes after the infinitive:
caminar lentament ("to walk slowly").
An adverb that modifies a main verb or clause comes either after the verb, or before the clause:
Lentament ell comença a caminar or Ell comença lentament a caminar ("Slowly, he begins to walk" or "He begins slowly to walk").
Note that, unlike in English, this is true even of negative adverbs:
Mai jo no he fet això or Jo no he fet mai això ("Never have I done that" or "I have never done that").
Possessives
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns are inflected for person and number of the possessor, and for gender and number of the possession.
The table below summarizes all the possible forms.
The feminine forms meva, teva, and seva may appear dialectally with /w/ instead of /β~v/: meua, teua, and seua. Their plural forms follow the same variation (meues, teues, and seues).[18]
Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives are, like the possessive pronouns, inflected for person and number of the possessor, and for gender and number of the possession. The table below summarizes all the possible forms. Notice how the plural possessor forms are identical to the possessive pronoun forms.
Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives (mon, etc.) in favour of constructions of article + stressed forms (el meu, etc.), a feature shared with Italian[2] and Portuguese.
Unstressed forms are rarely used in the spoken language, and are only retained for family relatives and set phrases.[19]
Ton pare. Son avi.
"Your father." "His / her grandfather."
En ma vida.
"In my whole life."
Instead of this, a construction of definite article + possessive pronoun + noun is preferred.[19]
The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, specially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian; French has such a different system that comparisons are not feasible).[2] Features include the neuter gender (ho) and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations).[2]
This flexibility allows Catalan to use extraposition extensively, much more than French or Spanish. Thus, Catalan can have m'hi recomanaren ("they recommended me to him"), whereas in French one must say ils m'ont recommendé à lui, and in Spanish me recomendaron a él.[2] This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentence topic, without having to use so often the passive voice (as in French or English), or identifying the direct object with a preposition (as in Spanish).[2]
Catalan verbs express an action or a state of being of a given subject, and like verbs in most of the Indo-European languages, Catalan verbs undergo inflection according to the following categories:
Finite Catalan verb forms for cantar ("to sing") only 2nd person singular
mood
time
simple
perfect
indicative
present
cantes
has cantat
past
imperfect
cantaves
havies cantat
remote preterite
cantares
hagueres cantat
future
cantaràs
hauràs cantat
subjunctive
present
cantis
hagis cantat
past
cantéssis
haguéssis cantat
conditional
cantaries
hauries cantat
imperative
canta
—
Non-finite Catalan verb forms for cantar ("to sing")
simple
perfect
infinitive
cantar
haver cantat
gerund
cantant
havent cantat
participle
cantat
–
Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal. Suffixation is omnipresent, while morphological alternations play a secondary role.[2] Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion. However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs.[2]
The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects replace the analytic perfect indicative with a periphrastic tense composed of vaig, vas (vares), va, vam (vàrem), vau (vàreu), van (varen) and the infinitive.
Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes -a-, -e-, -i-, the last two being split into two subtypes. However, this division is mostly theoretical.[2] Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), while the third (the subtype of servir, with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive. The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding.[2]
Verbal periphrases
Verbal periphrases of obligation:
Caldre + que + infinitive (personal)
Caldre + infinitive (impersonal)
Haver + de + infinitive (personal)
Haver-se + de + infinitive (impersonal)
Fer falta (impersonal)
Ser menester + que + verb in subjunctive (personal)
Ser menester + infinitive (impersonal)
Ser necessari + que + verb in subjunctive (personal)
Ser necessari + infinitive (impersonal)
(*) Although it is not correct[further explanation needed] the usage of the verbal periphrasis *tenir + que + infinitive (obligation) in the Standard (instead of haver + de, which is roughly equivalent to English "have to"), it is widely used in colloquial Catalan and Valencian. The same occurs with *haver-hi + que + infinitive.
Verbal periphrases of probability:
Deure + infinitive
Potser / Segurament / Probablement + verb in indicative
Poder + ser + verb in subjunctive
Ser probable + que + verb in subjunctive
Ser possible + que + verb in subjunctive
Poder + infinitive (it is also a periphrasis of capability)
Verbal periphrases of imminence, intention or future:
Ara + verb in present or future (immediate action)
De seguida + verb in present or future (immediate action)
Tot seguit + verb in present or future (immediate action)
Verb in present or future (not necessarily immediate action)
Pensar + infinitive (periphrasis of intention)
Anar + a + infinitive
Estar a punt de + infinitive (immediate action)
Other modal and aspectual verbal periphrases:
Vindre a + infinitive (modal verbal periphrasis of approximation value, with the verb dir, to say, it has a justification aspect)
Gosar + infinitive (modal verbal periphrasis of audacity)
Saber + infinitive (modal verbal periphrasis of ingressive value)
Acabar de + infinitive (modal verbal periphrasis of culminative value)
Arribar a + infinitive (aspectual periphrasis of culminative and ponderative value)
Començar a + infinitive (aspectual periphrasis of ingressive value)
Posar-se a + infinitive (aspectual periphrasis of ingressive value)
Arrencar (or Arrancar) a + infinitive (aspectual periphrasis of ingressive value)
Rompre a + infinitive (aspectual periphrasis of ingressive value)
Voler + infinitive (aspectual periphrasis of ingressive value)
Soler + infinitive (aspectual periphrasis of habitual value)
Tornar a + infinitive (aspectual periphrasis of repetitive value)
Estar + gerund (aspectual periphrasis of progressive value)
Anar + gerund (aspectual periphrasis of progressive value)
Continuar + gerund (aspectual periphrasis of durative value)
Seguir + gerund (aspectual periphrasis of durative value)
Tindre + past participle (aspectual periphrasis of resultative value)
Quedar + past participle (aspectual periphrasis of resultative value)
Deixar + past participle (aspectual periphrasis of resultative value)
Tindre + past participle (aspectual periphrasis of resultative value)
