^ 6.06.16.26.36.46.56.6Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Sydor A, Brown RY , 编. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 147–48, 366–67, 375–76. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4.
^ 8.08.1Wenzel JM, Rauscher NA, Cheer JF, Oleson EB. A role for phasic dopamine release within the nucleus accumbens in encoding aversion: a review of the neurochemical literature. ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 2015-01-21, 6 (1): 16–26. PMC 5820768. PMID 25491156. doi:10.1021/cn500255p. Thus, fear-evoking stimuli are capable of differentially altering phasic dopamine transmission across NAcc subregions. The authors propose that the observed enhancement in NAcc shell dopamine likely reflects general motivational salience, perhaps due to relief from a CS-induced fear state when the US (foot shock) is not delivered. This reasoning is supported by a report from Budygin and colleagues112 showing that, in anesthetized rats, the termination of tail pinch results in augmented dopamine release in the shell.
^Moncrieff J. The myth of the chemical cure. A critique of psychiatric drug treatment. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave MacMillan. 2008. ISBN 978-0-230-57432-8.
^ 22.022.122.222.3Wang X, Li J, Dong G, Yue J. The endogenous substrates of brain CYP2D. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2014-02-05, 724: 211–218. PMID 24374199. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.12.025. The highest level of brain CYP2D activity was found in the substantia nigra ... The in vitro and in vivo studies have shown the contribution of the alternative CYP2D-mediated dopamine synthesis to the concentration of this neurotransmitter although the classic biosynthetic route to dopamine from tyrosine is active. ... Tyramine levels are especially high in the basal ganglia and limbic system, which are thought to be related to individual behavior and emotion (Yu et al., 2003c). ... Rat CYP2D isoforms (2D2/2D4/2D18) are less efficient than human CYP2D6 for the generation of dopamine from p-tyramine. The Km values of the CYP2D isoforms are as follows: CYP2D6 (87–121 μm) ≈ CYP2D2 ≈ CYP2D18 > CYP2D4 (256 μm) for m-tyramine and CYP2D4 (433 μm) > CYP2D2 ≈ CYP2D6 > CYP2D18 (688 μm) for p-tyramine
^ 26.026.126.226.326.426.5Musacchio JM. Chapter 1: Enzymes involved in the biosynthesis and degradation of catecholamines. Iverson L (编). Biochemistry of Biogenic Amines. Springer. 2013: 1–35. ISBN 978-1-4684-3171-1.
^ 35.035.1Eiden LE, Schäfer MK, Weihe E, Schütz B. The vesicular amine transporter family (SLC18): amine/proton antiporters required for vesicular accumulation and regulated exocytotic secretion of monoamines and acetylcholine. Pflügers Archiv. 2004-02, 447 (5): 636–40. PMID 12827358. S2CID 20764857. doi:10.1007/s00424-003-1100-5.
^ 40.040.1Dahlstroem A, Fuxe K. Evidence for the existence of monoamine-containing neurons in the central nervous system. I. Demonstration of monoamines in the cell bodies of brain stem neurons. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. Supplementum. 1964, 232 (Suppl): 1–55. PMID 14229500.
^ 41.041.141.241.3Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin. Sydor A, Brown RY (编). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 147–48, 154–57. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4.
^Christine CW, Aminoff MJ. Clinical differentiation of parkinsonian syndromes: prognostic and therapeutic relevance. The American Journal of Medicine. 2004-09-15, 117 (6): 412–19. PMID 15380498. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.03.032.
^ 46.046.1Paulus W, Schomburg ED. Dopamine and the spinal cord in restless legs syndrome: does spinal cord physiology reveal a basis for augmentation?. Sleep Medicine Reviews. 2006-06, 10 (3): 185–96. PMID 16762808. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2006.01.004.
^Arias-Carrión O, Pöppel E. Dopamine, learning and reward-seeking behavior. Acta Neurobiol Exp. 2007, 67 (4): 481–88. PMID 18320725.
^ 65.065.1Ferreri L, Mas-Herrero E, Zatorre RJ, Ripollés P, Gomez-Andres A, Alicart H, Olivé G, Marco-Pallarés J, Antonijoan RM, Valle M, Riba J, Rodriguez-Fornells A. Dopamine modulates the reward experiences elicited by music. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2019, 116 (9): 3793–98. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.3793F. PMC 6397525. PMID 30670642. doi:10.1073/pnas.1811878116. Listening to pleasurable music is often accompanied by measurable bodily reactions such as goose bumps or shivers down the spine, commonly called "chills" or "frissons." ... Overall, our results straightforwardly revealed that pharmacological interventions bidirectionally modulated the reward responses elicited by music. In particular, we found that risperidone impaired participants' ability to experience musical pleasure, whereas levodopa enhanced it. ... Here, in contrast, studying responses to abstract rewards in human subjects, we show that manipulation of dopaminergic transmission affects both the pleasure (i.e., amount of time reporting chills and emotional arousal measured by EDA) and the motivational components of musical reward (money willing to spend). These findings suggest that dopaminergic signaling is a sine qua non condition not only for motivational responses, as has been shown with primary and secondary rewards, but also for hedonic reactions to music. This result supports recent findings showing that dopamine also mediates the perceived pleasantness attained by other types of abstract rewards (37) and challenges previous findings in animal models on primary rewards, such as food (42, 43).
^ 66.066.1Goupil L, Aucouturier JJ. Musical pleasure and musical emotions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2019-02, 116 (9): 3364–66. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.3364G. PMC 6397567. PMID 30770455. doi:10.1073/pnas.1900369116. In a pharmacological study published in PNAS, Ferreri et al. (1) present evidence that enhancing or inhibiting dopamine signaling using levodopa or risperidone modulates the pleasure experienced while listening to music. ... In a final salvo to establish not only the correlational but also the causal implication of dopamine in musical pleasure, the authors have turned to directly manipulating dopaminergic signaling in the striatum, first by applying excitatory and inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation over their participants' left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a region known to modulate striatal function (5), and finally, in the current study, by administrating pharmaceutical agents able to alter dopamine synaptic availability (1), both of which influenced perceived pleasure, physiological measures of arousal, and the monetary value assigned to music in the predicted direction. ... While the question of the musical expression of emotion has a long history of investigation, including in PNAS (6), and the 1990s psychophysiological strand of research had already established that musical pleasure could activate the autonomic nervous system (7), the authors' demonstration of the implication of the reward system in musical emotions was taken as inaugural proof that these were veridical emotions whose study has full legitimacy to inform the neurobiology of our everyday cognitive, social, and affective functions (8). Incidentally, this line of work, culminating in the article by Ferreri et al. (1), has plausibly done more to attract research funding for the field of music sciences than any other in this community. The evidence of Ferreri et al. (1) provides the latest support for a compelling neurobiological model in which musical pleasure arises from the interaction of ancient reward/valuation systems (striatal–limbic–paralimbic) with more phylogenetically advanced perception/predictions systems (temporofrontal).
^ 75.075.175.275.375.4Rubí B, Maechler P. Minireview: new roles for peripheral dopamine on metabolic control and tumor growth: let's seek the balance. Endocrinology. 2010-12, 151 (12): 5570–81. PMID 21047943. doi:10.1210/en.2010-0745.
^Standaert DG, Walsh RR. Pharmacology of dopaminergic neurotransmission. Tashjian AH, Armstrong EJ, Golan DE (编). Principles of Pharmacology: The Pathophysiologic Basis of Drug Therapy. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2011: 186–206. ISBN 978-1-4511-1805-6.
^Ota M, Yasuno F, Ito H, Seki C, Nozaki S, Asada T, Suhara T. Age-related decline of dopamine synthesis in the living human brain measured by positron emission tomography with L-[β-11C]DOPA. Life Sciences. 2006-07-17, 79 (8): 730–36. PMID 16580023. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2006.02.017.
^Kaasinen V, Vilkman H, Hietala J, Någren K, Helenius H, Olsson H, Farde L, Rinne J. Age-related dopamine D2/D3 receptor loss in extrastriatal regions of the human brain. Neurobiology of Aging. 2000, 21 (5): 683–68. PMID 11016537. S2CID 40871554. doi:10.1016/S0197-4580(00)00149-4.
^Wong DF, Wagner HN, Dannals RF, Links JM, Frost JJ, Ravert HT, Wilson AA, Rosenbaum AE, Gjedde A, Douglass KH. Effects of age on dopamine and serotonin receptors measured by positron tomography in the living human brain. Science. 1984-12, 226 (4681): 1393–96. Bibcode:1984Sci...226.1393W. PMID 6334363. S2CID 24278577. doi:10.1126/science.6334363.
^Ceravolo R, Frosini D, Rossi C, Bonuccelli U. Spectrum of addictions in Parkinson's disease: from dopamine dysregulation syndrome to impulse control disorders. Journal of Neurology. 2010-11, 257 (Suppl 2): S276–83. PMID 21080189. S2CID 19277026. doi:10.1007/s00415-010-5715-0.
^Heal DJ, Pierce DM. Methylphenidate and its isomers: their role in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder using a transdermal delivery system. CNS Drugs. 2006, 20 (9): 713–38. PMID 16953648. S2CID 39535277. doi:10.2165/00023210-200620090-00002.
^ 101.0101.1Freye E. Pharmacology and abuse of cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy and related designer drugs a comprehensive review on their mode of action, treatment of abuse and intoxication. Dordrecht: Springer. 2009. ISBN 978-90-481-2448-0.
^ 113.0113.1Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Chapters 10 and 13. Sydor A, Brown RY (编). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 266, 318–23. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4.
^Roshchina VV. Evolutionary considerations of neurotransmitters in microbial, plant, and animal cells. Lyte M, Primrose PE (编). Microbial Endocrinology. New York: Springer. 2010: 17–52. ISBN 978-1-4419-5576-0.
^Kass-Simon G, Pierobon P. Cnidarian chemical neurotransmission, an updated overview. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology. 2007-01, 146 (1): 9–25. PMID 17101286. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.09.008.
^Kindt KS, Quast KB, Giles AC, De S, Hendrey D, Nicastro I, Rankin CH, Schafer WR. Dopamine mediates context-dependent modulation of sensory plasticity in C. elegans. Neuron. 2007-08, 55 (4): 662–76. PMID 17698017. S2CID 2092645. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.023.
^Kalivas PW, Stewart J. Dopamine transmission in the initiation and expression of drug- and stress-induced sensitization of motor activity. Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews. 1991-09-01, 16 (3): 223–44. PMID 1665095. S2CID 10775295. doi:10.1016/0165-0173(91)90007-U.
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