Tolong bantu menterjemahkan sebahagian rencana ini. Rencana ini memerlukan kemaskini dalam Bahasa Melayu piawai Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Sila membantu, bahan-bahan boleh didapati di Confederate States of America(Inggeris).
Jika anda ingin menilai rencana ini, anda mungkin mahu menyemak di terjemahan Google. Walau bagaimanapun, jangan menambah terjemahan automatik kepada rencana, kerana ini biasanya mempunyai kualiti yang sangat teruk. Sumber-sumber bantuan:Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu.
1Jumlah luas dan populasi tidak termasuk Missouri & Kentucky dan juga Jajahan Arizona. Luas perairan:5.7% 2Hamba-hamba termasuk dalam jumlah populasi yang dikira di atas. Bancian 1860
Negeri-Negeri Gabungan Amerika (juga dipanggil Konfederasi, Negeri-Negeri Konfederasi, dan CSA) merupakan kerajaan yang ditubuhkan oleh 11 negeri-negeriselatan di Amerika Syarikat dari 1861 hingga 1865. Tujuh buah negeri mengisytiharkan kemerdekaan dari Amerika Syarikat sebelum Abraham Lincoln menjadi presiden; empat lagi berbuat demikian selepas Perang Saudara Amerika bermula dengan Pertempuran Fort Sumter apabila CSA menyerang USA. Pihak (Kesatuan) atau Kesatuan Amerika Syarikat menolak perpecahan itu dan enggan mengiktiraf kemerdekaan Gabungan. Walaupun tiada kuasa Eropah yang mengiktirafkan CSA secara rasmi, namun Britain mengambil kesempatan komersial dengan menjual kapal perang kepada CSA ini dan membawa kapal bekalan untuk membantu CSA.
Apabila Robert E. Lee serta panglima-panglima lain mengaku kalah pada musim bunga 1865, gabungan negeri ini hancur dan menamatkan peperangan itu tanpa peperangan gerila. Proses pembinaan semula yang sukar dan lama memberi hak sivil secara sementara dan hak mengundi, mengusirkan bekas pemimpin-pemimpin Konfederasi daripada pejabat, dan menerima semula bekas negeri-negeri Konfederasi ke dalam Kongres Amerika Syarikat selama-lamanya.
Sejarah
Punca-punca pemisahan
Ahli sejarah mengatakan punca pemisahan adalah kerana ancaman untuk menghad atau menamatkan perhambaan oleh pihak Republikan atau sekatan ke atas hak negeri berhubung pemilikan hamba di dalam jajahan-jajahan menyebabkan negeri-negeri selatan keluar dari Gabungan.
Negeri-negeri pemisah
Peta kronologi yang beranimasi untuk Negeri-Negeri Gabungan Amerika
Tujuh negeri yang berpisah pada Februari 1861 adalah:
Dua buah negeri lain menubuhkan kerajaan saingan (atau punggung). Gabungan mengakui negeri-negeri tersebut tetapi tidak mengawal negeri-negeri ini dan kerajaan negeri penyokong Gabungan ini dibuang negeri:
Kentucky tidak berpisah tetapi segolongan pemisah yang tidak diundi mengisytiharkan pemisahan (20 November, 1861).[16][17]
Kedua-dua negeri membenarkan perhambaan dan mukimnya bercampur-aduk pihaknya dalam perang, termasuk penyimpan hamba berpihak kepada Kesatuan. Kesahihan hal ini masih diragui sehingga hari ini.
Kebangkitan dan keruntuhan Gabungan
Perang Saudara Amerika meletus pada bulan April 1861 dengan bermulanya Pertempuran Kubu Sumter di Charleston, Carolina Selatan. Pasukan tentera persekutuan A.S. telah berundur ke Kubu Sumter tidak lama selepas Carolina Selatan mengisthiharkan pemisahannya. Presiden A.S. Buchanan telah cuba untuk memberi bantuan kepada Sumter dengan menghantar Bintang Barat, akan tetapi pasukan tentera Gabungan menembak ke arah kapal dan berjaya mengusirnya. Presiden A.S. Abraham Lincoln juga cuba memberi bantuan kepada Sumter. Lincoln memberitahu Gabenor Carolina Selatan, Francis W. Pickens bahawa "cubaan akan dibuat bagi menghantar bekalan ke Fort Sumter dengan kebenaran sahaja, dan sekiranya cubaan ini tidak dihalang, tiada usaha bagi menghantar tentera, senjata, atau peluru akan dilakukan tanpa notis lanjut, kecuali di mana serangan dibuat ke atas kubu". Sebagai jawapan, kabinet Gabungan memutuskan dalam satu mesyuarat di Montgomery bagi menawan Fort Sumter dalam cubaan untuk memaksanya untuk menyerah diri sebelum ketibaan angkatan bantuan.
Pada 12 April, 1861, pasukan tentera Gabungan, berdasarkan arahan daripada Davis dan Setiausaha Perang beliau, telah melepaskan tembakan ke atas pasukan tentera persekutuan yang menduduki Fort Sumter, dan memaksa mereka menyerah diri. Berikutan daripada Pertempuran Kubu Sumter, Lincoln telah memanggil negeri-negeri yang masih tinggal dalam Kesatuan bagi menghantar pasukan tentera untuk menawan kembali Sumter, kubu-kubu lain dan rumah-rumah kastam[18] di Selatan di mana telah ditawan oleh pasukan tentera Gabungan, beberapa darinya melalui kekerasan. Pengisytiharan ini dibuat sebelum Kongres dapat bersidang mengenainya, dan permintaan asal dari Jabatan Perang memanggil sukarelawan bagi hanya tiga bulan bertugas.[18] Seruan Lincoln bagi tentera menyebabkan empat lagi negeri memilih untuk berpisah, dan bukannya menyediakan pasukan tentera untuk Kesatuan. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, dan Carolina Utara menyertai Konfederasi untuk menjadikan bilangan sejumlah 11. Setelah Virginia menyertai Gabungan, ibu negeri Gabungan dipindahkan daripada Montgomery, Alabama, ke Richmond, Virginia. Kesemua pertempuran (kecuali dua) berlaku di wilayah Gabungan.
Alexander H. Stephens menegaskan cubaan Lincoln bagi membekal semula Sumter telah memprovokasi perang.[19]
Kentucky merupakan negeri sempadan semasa perang, dan dalam satu ketika, memiliki dua kerajaan, satu pihak menyokong Gabungan manakala satu pihak lagi menyokong Kesatuan. Kerajaan asal kekal berada di dalam Kesatuan selepas cubaan singkat untuk bersikap neutral, tetapi serpihan pesaing dari negeri itu diterima sebagai ahli Negeri-Negeri Gabungan Amerika; ia tidak mengawal mana-mana kawasan. Keadaan lebih kompleks melanda pemisahan Missouri, tetapi dalam sebarang keadaan, Gabungan menganggap Missouri sebagai sebuah Negeri Gabungan Amerika; it did not control any territory. Dengan Kentucky dan Missouri, jumlah negeri-negeri Gabungan boleh dikira sebagai 13 buah.
Lima kerajaan puak Wilayah Indian - yang menjadi Oklahoma pada tahun 1907 - juga menyokong Konfederasi, dengan menyediakan tentera dan seorang Pegawai Jeneral. Ia tidak diwakili dalam Kongres Konfederat.
Citizens at Mesilla and Tucson in the southern part of New Mexico Territory formed a secession convention and voted to join the Confederacy on March 16, 1861, and appointed Lewis Owings as the new territorial governor. In July, Mesilla appealed to Confederate troops in El Paso, Texas, under Lieutenant Colonel John Baylor for help in removing the Union Army under Major Isaac Lynde that was stationed nearby. The Confederates defeated Lynde at the Battle of Mesilla on July 27. After the battle, Baylor established a territorial government for the Confederate Arizona Territory and named himself governor. In 1862, a New Mexico Campaign was launched under General Henry Hopkins Sibley to take the northern half of New Mexico. Although Confederates briefly occupied the territorial capital of Santa Fe, they were defeated at Glorietta Pass in March and retreated, never to return.
The northernmost slave states (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) were contested territory, but the Union won control by 1862. In 1861, martial law was declared in Maryland (the state which borders the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C., on three sides) to block attempts at secession. Delaware, also a slave state, never considered secession, nor did Washington, D.C. In 1861, a unionist legislature in Wheeling, Virginia seceded from Virginia, claiming 48 counties, and joined the United States in 1863 as the state of West Virginia with a constitution that gradually abolished slavery.
Penyerahan diri Tentera Virginia Utara oleh Jeneral Lee di Appomattox Court House pada 9 April, 1865, secara umumnya dikira sebagai penamat ke atas negeri-negeri Gabungan. Presiden Davis telah ditawan di Irwinville, Georgia, pada 10 Mei, dan pasukan-pasukan tentera selebihnya telah menyerah diri pada bulan Jun 1865. Bendera Gabungan terakhir telah diturunkan daripada CSS Shenandoah pada 6 November, 1865.-->
Perlembagaan Negeri-negeri Gabungan Amerika kebanyakannya sama dengan Perlembagaan Amerika Syarikat. Walaubagaimanpun, terdapat beberapa perbezaan yang penting. Utamanya, hak membeli dan menjual hamba dilindungi, namun perdagangan hamba antarabangsa diharamkan. Perlembagaan ini juga megutamakan falsafah hak negeri. Sejurus ini, kuasa kerajaan pusat dikurangkan. Sebagai contoh, kerajaan pusat dilarang mengutip cukai perlindungan daripada negeri-negeri dalam gabungan. Kerajaan juga tidak dibenarkan menggunakan wang dari suatu negeri untuk membiayai kerajaan di suatu negeri yang lain. Satu lagi adalah perbahasaan dalam perlembagaan, yang menyatakan nama Tuhan beberapa kali serta meminta berkat daripada-Nya.
The constitution did not specifically include a provision allowing states to secede; the Preamble spoke of each state "acting in its sovereign and independent character" but also of the formation of a "permanent federal government". The Southern leaders met in Montgomery, Alabama, to write their constitution.
The President of the Confederate States of America was to be elected to a six-year term and could not be reelected. The only president was Jefferson Davis; the Confederate States of America was defeated by the federal government before he completed his term. One unique power granted to the Confederate president was the ability to subject a bill to a line item veto, a power held by some state governors. The Confederate Congress could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two-thirds majorities that are required in the U.S. Congress. In addition, appropriations not specifically requested by the executive branch required passage by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress.
Printed currency in the forms of bills and stamps was authorized and put into circulation, although by the individual states in the Confederacy's name. The government considered issuing Confederate coinage. Plans, dies and 4 "proofs" were created, but a lack of bullion prevented any public coinage.
Kebebasan rakyat
Ibu kota
Ibu negara untuk NGA adalah Montgomery, Alabama bermula 4 Februari, 1861, hingga 29 Mei, 1861. Richmond, Virginia, dijadikan ibu negara yang baru pada 6 Mei, 1861. Dalam masa singkat sebelum tamatnya perang, kerajaan Kesatuan telah menduduki Richmond dan merancang untuk meneruskan pendudukan di selatan. Sangat sedikit diketahui berkenaan rancangan ini sebelum Lee menyerah diri di Appomattox Court House. Danville, Virginia menjadi ibu negara terakhir NGA bemula 3 April sehingga 10 April, 1865.
Diplomasi antarabangsa
Sebaik sahaja perang dengan Amerika Syarikat bermula, harapan terbaik untuk meneruskan kewujudan NGA adalah dengan campur tangan tentera oleh Britain dan Perancis. Amerika Syarikat sedar akan hal ini dan dengan jelas menyatakan bahawa pengiktirafan ke atas NGA bermakna berperang dengan Amerika Syarikat - dan kesannya Amerika Syarikat akan menghentikan penghantaran makanan ke Britain. Ahli NGA mempercayai bahawa "kapas adalah raja" - bermakna Britain perlu menyokong NGA bagi mendapatkan kapas - anggapan ini telah terbukti salah. Britain, pada hakikatnya mempunyai simpanan kapas yang mencukupi pada tahun 1861 dan bergantung lebih kepada biji-bijian dari negeri-negeri Kesatuan.
Once the war with the United States began, the best hope for the survival of the Confederacy was military intervention by Britain and France. The U.S. realized this as well and made it clear that recognition of the Confederacy meant war with the United States — and the cutoff of food shipments into Britain. The Confederates who had believed that "cotton is king" — that is, Britain had to support the Confederacy to obtain cotton — were proven wrong. Britain, in fact, had ample stores of cotton in 1861 and depended much more on grain from the Union states.
During its existence, the Confederate government sent repeated delegations to Europe; historians do not give them high marks for diplomatic skills. James M. Mason was sent to London as Confederate minister to Queen Victoria, and John Slidell was sent to Paris as minister to Napoleon III. Both were able to obtain private meetings with high British and French officials, but they failed to secure official recognition for the Confederacy. Britain and the United States were at sword's point during the Trent Affair in late 1861. Mason and Slidell had been illegally seized from a British ship by an American warship. Queen Victoria's husband, Prince Albert, helped calm the situation, and Lincoln released Mason and Slidell, so the episode was no help to the Confederacy.
Throughout the early years of the war, both British foreign secretary Lord Russell and Napoleon III, and, to a lesser extent, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston, were interested in the idea of recognition of the Confederacy, or at least of offering a mediation. Recognition meant certain war with the United States, loss of American grain, loss of exports to the United States, loss of huge investments in American securities, possible war in Canada and other North American colonies, much higher taxes, many lives lost and a severe threat to the entire British merchant marine, in exchange for the possibility of some cotton. Many party leaders and the general public wanted no war with such high costs and meager benefits. Recognition was considered following the Second Battle of Manassas when the British government was preparing to mediate in the conflict, but the Union victory at the Battle of Antietam and Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, combined with internal opposition, caused the government to back away.
In November 1863, Confederate diplomat A. Dudley Mann met Pope Pius IX and received a letter addressed "to the Illustrious and Honorable Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America.” Mann, in his dispatch to Richmond, interpreted the letter as "a positive recognition of our Government," and some have mistakenly viewed it as a de facto recognition of the C.S.A. Confederate Secretary of State Judah P. Benjamin, however, interpreted it as "a mere inferential recognition, unconnected with political action or the regular establishment of diplomatic relations" and thus did not assign it the weight of formal recognition. [3]
For the remainder of the war, Confederate commissioners continued meeting with Cardinal Antonelli, the Vatican Secretary of State. In 1864, Catholic Bishop Patrick N. Lynch of Charleston traveled to the Vatican with an authorization from Jefferson Davis to represent the Confederacy before the Holy See.
No country appointed any diplomat officially to the Confederacy, but several maintained their consuls in the South who had been appointed before the war. In 1861, Ernst Raven applied for approval as the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha consul, but he was a citizen of Texas and there is no evidence that Saxe officials knew what he was doing. In 1863, the Confederacy expelled all foreign consuls (all of them British or French diplomats) for advising their subjects to refuse to serve in combat against the U.S.
Throughout the war most European powers adopted a policy of neutrality, meeting informally with Confederate diplomats but withholding diplomatic recognition. None ever sent an ambassador or official delegation to Richmond. However, they applied international law principles that recognized the Union and Confederate sides as belligerents. Canada allowed both Confederate and Union agents to work openly within its borders, and some state governments in northern Mexico negotiated local agreements to cover trade on the Texas border.
Peta negeri-negeri dan wilayah-wilayah yang dituntut oleh Negeri-negeri Gabungan Amerika
Iklim
Sistem sungai
Semasa aman, sistem sungai yang boleh dilalui dengan banyak membolehkan pengangkutan produk-produk ladang yang mudah dan murah. Sistem jalan keretapi dibina bagi melengkapkan, menyambung kawasan penanaman ke sungai terdekat atau pelabuhan laut. The vast geography made for difficult Union logistics, and Union soldiers were used to garrison captured areas and protect rail lines. But the Union Navy seized most of the navigable rivers by 1862, making its own logistics easy and Confederate movements difficult. After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, it became impossible for units to cross the Mississippi since Union gunboats constantly patrolled it. The South thus lost use of its western regions.
Negeri Gabungan mempunyai ekonomi pertanian dengan mengeksportnya ke pasaran dunia. Produk-produk pertanian seperti kapas, dan kadang kala tembakau dan tebu. Pengeluaran makanan tempatan termasuk bijiran, babi dan lembu. 11 buah negeri ini menghasilkan kira-kira AS$ 155 juta nilai produk pada tahun 1860, terutamanya dari kilang-kilang tempatan seperti tali, balak, produk tembakau, kapas dan stor tentera laut seperti turpentin. NGA menerima cukai rendah 15 peratus, tetapi mengenakannya pada kesemua barangan import yang berasal dari tempat-tempat lain di Amerika Syarikat. [4] Cukai ini tidak memberi kesan; kerana pelabuhan-pelabuhan NGA telah disekat dari lalu lintas komersil disebabkan oleh pengepungan Kesatuan, dan sangat sedikit orang yang membayar cukai ke atas barangan yang diseludup daripada negeri-negeri Kesatuan. Kerajaan telah mengutip kira-kira AS$3.5 juta pendapatan cukai sejak perang bermula menentang Kesatuan sehingga akhir tahun 1864. Kekurangan kewangan yang mencukupi telah menyebabkan NGA membiayai perang dengan mencetak wang, yang mana menyebabkan inflasi yang tinggi.
Pasukan-pasukan bersenjata
Bendera tentera laut Gabungan
Pasukan tentera bersenjata Gabungan terdiri daripada tiga cabang:
Kepimpinan tentera Gabungan terdiri daripada kebanyakkan veteran Tentera Darat Amerika Syarikat dan Tentera Laut Amerika Syarikat yang telah meletak jawatan dari tugas persekutuan dan telah dilantik bagi mengisi pangkat kanan dalam pasukan bersenjata Gabungan. Kebayakkan mereka berkhidmat di dalam Perang Mexico-Amerika (termasuk Robert E. Lee dan Jefferson Davis), tetapi yang lain hanya memiliki sedikit atau tiada pengalaman ketenteraan (seperti Leonidas Polk, yang telah menghadiri West Point tetapi tidak lulus). Kor pegawai Gabungan terdiri daripada pemuda yang berasal dari keluarga yang memiliki hamba, but many came from non-owners. The Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, many colleges of the South (such as the The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that were seen as a training ground for Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established in 1863, but no midshipmen had graduated by the time the Confederacy collapsed.
The rank and file of the Confederate armed forces consisted of white males with an average age between 16 and 28. Many thousands of slaves served as laborers, cooks, pioneers and in other non-combat roles. The Confederacy adopted conscription in 1862. Depleted by casualties, the military suffered chronic manpower shortages. After agitation from the Army, and at the demand of General Lee, slaves were enrolled in new combat units in the spring of 1865, with the promise of emancipation; they were in training when the war ended and did not serve in actual combat. [20]
Pemimpin-pemimpin tentera
Para pemimpin tentera Gabungan (dengan negeri kelahiran dan pangkat tertinggi[21]) termasuk:
Jeneral Robert E. Lee, bagi kebanyakkan orang, merupakan ketua tentera Gabungan.
^Perundangan Tennessee meratifikasi persetujuan untuk menyertai liga ketenteraan dengan Gabungan pada 7 Mei 1861. Pengundi Tennessee merestui persetujuan ini pada 8 Jun, 1861.
^Alexander H. Stephens A Constitutional View of the Late War Between the States (1870), Vol. 2, p. 36. 75 MB PDF file "I maintain that it was inaugurated and begun, though no blow had been struck, when the hostile fleet, styled the "Relief Squadron," with eleven ships, carrying two hundred and eighty-five guns and two thousand four hundred men, was sent out from New York and Norfolk, with orders from the authorities at Washington, to reenforce Fort Sumter peaceably, if permitted "but forcibly if they must."
^ Ervin L. Jordan, Jr. Black Confederates and Afro-Yankees in Civil War Virginia (1995)
Black, Robert C., III. The Railroads of the Confederacy, 1988.
Clinton, Catherine, and Silber, Nina, eds. Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War, 1992.
Dabney, Virginius. Richmond: The Story of a City. Charlottesville: The University of Virginia Press, 1990. ISBN 0-8139-1274-1.
Faust, Drew Gilpin. Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War, 1996.
Faust, Drew Gilpin. The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South, 1988.
Grimsley, Mark. The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy toward Southern Civilians, 1861-1865, 1995.
Lentz, Perry Carlton. Our Missing Epic: A Study in the Novels about the American Civil War, 1970.
Massey, Mary Elizabeth. Bonnet Brigades: American Women and the Civil War, 1966.
Massey, Mary Elizabeth. Refugee Life in the Confederacy, 1964.
Rable, George C. Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism, 1989.
Ramsdell, Charles. Behind the Lines in the Southern Confederacy, 1994.
Roark, James L. Masters without Slaves: Southern Planters in the Civil War and Reconstruction, 1977.
Rubin, Anne Sarah. A Shattered Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, 1861-1868, 2005. A cultural study of Confederates' self images.
Thomas, Emory M. The Confederacy as a Revolutionary Experience, 1992.
Wiley, Bell Irwin. Confederate Women, 1975.
Wiley, Bell Irwin. The Plain People of the Confederacy, 1944.
Woodward, C. Vann, ed. Mary Chesnut's Civil War, 1981.
Politik
Alexander, Thomas B., and Beringer, Richard E. The Anatomy of the Confederate Congress: A Study of the Influences of Member Characteristics on Legislative Voting Behavior, 1861-1865, 1972.
Boritt, Gabor S., et al, Why the Confederacy Lost, 1992.
Cooper, William J, Jefferson Davis, American, 2000. Standard biography.
Coulter, E. Merton. The Confederate States of America, 1861-1865, 1950.
William C. Davis (2003). Look Away! A History of the Confederate States of America. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-684-86585-8.
Eaton, Clement. A History of the Southern Confederacy, 1954.
Eckenrode, H. J., Jefferson Davis: President of the South, 1923.
Gallgher, Gary W., The Confederate War, 1999.
Neely, Mark E., Jr., Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties, 1993.
Rembert, W. Patrick. Jefferson Davis and His Cabinet, 1944.
Rable, George C., The Confederate Republic: A Revolution against Politics, 1994.
Roland, Charles P. The Confederacy, 1960. brief
Thomas, Emory M. Confederate Nation: 1861-1865, 1979. Standard political-economic-social history
Wakelyn, Jon L. Biographical Dictionary of the Confederacy Greenwood Press ISBN 0-8371-6124-X
Williams, William M. Justice in Grey: A History of the Judicial System of the Confederate States of America, 1941.
Yearns, Wilfred Buck. The Confederate Congress, 1960.
Sumber utama
Carter, Susan B., ed. The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006.
Davis, Jefferson, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (2 vols), 1881.
Harwell, Richard B., The Confederate Reader (1957)
Jones, John B. A Rebel War Clerk's Diary at the Confederate States Capital, edited by Howard Swiggert, [1935] 1993. 2 vols.
Richardson, James D., ed. A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Confederacy, Including the Diplomatic Correspondence 1861-1865, 2 volumes, 1906.
Yearns, W. Buck and Barret, John G.,eds. North Carolina Civil War Documentary, 1980.
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