TensorFlow

TensorFlow
Developer(s)Google Brain Team[1]
Initial releaseNovember 9, 2015; 9 years ago (2015-11-09)
Repositorygithub.com/tensorflow/tensorflow
Written inPython, C++, CUDA
PlatformLinux, macOS, Windows, Android, JavaScript[2]
TypeMachine learning library
LicenseApache 2.0
Websitetensorflow.org
Part of a series on
Machine learning
and data mining
Paradigms
Problems
Clustering
Dimensionality reduction
Structured prediction
Anomaly detection
Artificial neural network
Reinforcement learning
Learning with humans
Model diagnostics
Mathematical foundations
Journals and conferences
Related articles

TensorFlow is a software library for machine learning and artificial intelligence. It can be used across a range of tasks, but is used mainly for training and inference of neural networks.[3][4] It is one of the most popular deep learning frameworks, alongside others such as PyTorch and PaddlePaddle.[5][6] It is free and open-source software released under the Apache License 2.0.

It was developed by the Google Brain team for Google's internal use in research and production.[7][8][9] The initial version was released under the Apache License 2.0 in 2015.[1][10] Google released an updated version, TensorFlow 2.0, in September 2019.[11]

TensorFlow can be used in a wide variety of programming languages, including Python, JavaScript, C++, and Java,[12] facilitating its use in a range of applications in many sectors.

History

DistBelief

Starting in 2011, Google Brain built DistBelief as a proprietary machine learning system based on deep learning neural networks. Its use grew rapidly across diverse Alphabet companies in both research and commercial applications.[13][14] Google assigned multiple computer scientists, including Jeff Dean, to simplify and refactor the codebase of DistBelief into a faster, more robust application-grade library, which became TensorFlow.[15] In 2009, the team, led by Geoffrey Hinton, had implemented generalized backpropagation and other improvements, which allowed generation of neural networks with substantially higher accuracy, for instance a 25% reduction in errors in speech recognition.[16]

TensorFlow

TensorFlow is Google Brain's second-generation system. Version 1.0.0 was released on February 11, 2017.[17] While the reference implementation runs on single devices, TensorFlow can run on multiple CPUs and GPUs (with optional CUDA and SYCL extensions for general-purpose computing on graphics processing units).[18] TensorFlow is available on 64-bit Linux, macOS, Windows, and mobile computing platforms including Android and iOS.[citation needed]

Its flexible architecture allows for easy deployment of computation across a variety of platforms (CPUs, GPUs, TPUs), and from desktops to clusters of servers to mobile and edge devices.

TensorFlow computations are expressed as stateful dataflow graphs. The name TensorFlow derives from the operations that such neural networks perform on multidimensional data arrays, which are referred to as tensors.[19] During the Google I/O Conference in June 2016, Jeff Dean stated that 1,500 repositories on GitHub mentioned TensorFlow, of which only 5 were from Google.[20]

In March 2018, Google announced TensorFlow.js version 1.0 for machine learning in JavaScript.[21]

In Jan 2019, Google announced TensorFlow 2.0.[22] It became officially available in September 2019.[11]

In May 2019, Google announced TensorFlow Graphics for deep learning in computer graphics.[23]

Tensor processing unit (TPU)

Main article: Tensor processing unit

In May 2016, Google announced its Tensor processing unit (TPU), an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC, a hardware chip) built specifically for machine learning and tailored for TensorFlow. A TPU is a programmable AI accelerator designed to provide high throughput of low-precision arithmetic (e.g., 8-bit), and oriented toward using or running models rather than training them. Google announced they had been running TPUs inside their data centers for more than a year, and had found them to deliver an order of magnitude better-optimized performance per watt for machine learning.[24]

In May 2017, Google announced the second-generation, as well as the availability of the TPUs in Google Compute Engine.[25] The second-generation TPUs deliver up to 180 teraflops of performance, and when organized into clusters of 64 TPUs, provide up to 11.5 petaflops.[citation needed]

In May 2018, Google announced the third-generation TPUs delivering up to 420 teraflops of performance and 128 GB high bandwidth memory (HBM). Cloud TPU v3 Pods offer 100+ petaflops of performance and 32 TB HBM.[26]

In February 2018, Google announced that they were making TPUs available in beta on the Google Cloud Platform.[27]

Edge TPU

In July 2018, the Edge TPU was announced. Edge TPU is Google's purpose-built ASIC chip designed to run TensorFlow Lite machine learning (ML) models on small client computing devices such as smartphones[28] known as edge computing.

TensorFlow Lite

In May 2017, Google announced a software stack specifically for mobile development, TensorFlow Lite.[29] In January 2019, the TensorFlow team released a developer preview of the mobile GPU inference engine with OpenGL ES 3.1 Compute Shaders on Android devices and Metal Compute Shaders on iOS devices.[30] In May 2019, Google announced that their TensorFlow Lite Micro (also known as TensorFlow Lite for Microcontrollers) and ARM's uTensor would be merging.[31]

TensorFlow 2.0

As TensorFlow's market share among research papers was declining to the advantage of PyTorch,[32] the TensorFlow Team announced a release of a new major version of the library in September 2019. TensorFlow 2.0 introduced many changes, the most significant being TensorFlow eager, which changed the automatic differentiation scheme from the static computational graph to the "Define-by-Run" scheme originally made popular by Chainer and later PyTorch.[32] Other major changes included removal of old libraries, cross-compatibility between trained models on different versions of TensorFlow, and significant improvements to the performance on GPU.[33]

Features

AutoDifferentiation

AutoDifferentiation is the process of automatically calculating the gradient vector of a model with respect to each of its parameters. With this feature, TensorFlow can automatically compute the gradients for the parameters in a model, which is useful to algorithms such as backpropagation which require gradients to optimize performance.[34] To do so, the framework must keep track of the order of operations done to the input Tensors in a model, and then compute the gradients with respect to the appropriate parameters.[34]

Eager execution

TensorFlow includes an “eager execution” mode, which means that operations are evaluated immediately as opposed to being added to a computational graph which is executed later.[35] Code executed eagerly can be examined step-by step-through a debugger, since data is augmented at each line of code rather than later in a computational graph.[35] This execution paradigm is considered to be easier to debug because of its step by step transparency.[35]

Distribute

In both eager and graph executions, TensorFlow provides an API for distributing computation across multiple devices with various distribution strategies.[36] This distributed computing can often speed up the execution of training and evaluating of TensorFlow models and is a common practice in the field of AI.[36][37]

Losses

To train and assess models, TensorFlow provides a set of loss functions (also known as cost functions).[38] Some popular examples include mean squared error (MSE) and binary cross entropy (BCE).[38]

Metrics

In order to assess the performance of machine learning models, TensorFlow gives API access to commonly used metrics. Examples include various accuracy metrics (binary, categorical, sparse categorical) along with other metrics such as Precision, Recall, and Intersection-over-Union (IoU).[39]

TF.nn

TensorFlow.nn is a module for executing primitive neural network operations on models.[40] Some of these operations include variations of convolutions (1/2/3D, Atrous, depthwise), activation functions (Softmax, RELU, GELU, Sigmoid, etc.) and their variations, and other operations (max-pooling, bias-add, etc.).[40]

Optimizers

TensorFlow offers a set of optimizers for training neural networks, including ADAM, ADAGRAD, and Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD).[41] When training a model, different optimizers offer different modes of parameter tuning, often affecting a model's convergence and performance.[42]

Usage and extensions

TensorFlow

TensorFlow serves as a core platform and library for machine learning. TensorFlow's APIs use Keras to allow users to make their own machine-learning models.[33][43] In addition to building and training their model, TensorFlow can also help load the data to train the model, and deploy it using TensorFlow Serving.[44]

TensorFlow provides a stable Python Application Program Interface (API),[45] as well as APIs without backwards compatibility guarantee for Javascript,[46] C++,[47] and Java.[48][12] Third-party language binding packages are also available for C#,[49][50] Haskell,[51] Julia,[52] MATLAB,[53] Object Pascal,[54] R,[55] Scala,[56] Rust,[57] OCaml,[58] and Crystal.[59] Bindings that are now archived and unsupported include Go[60] and Swift.[61]

TensorFlow.js

TensorFlow also has a library for machine learning in JavaScript. Using the provided JavaScript APIs, TensorFlow.js allows users to use either Tensorflow.js models or converted models from TensorFlow or TFLite, retrain the given models, and run on the web.[44][62]

TFLite

TensorFlow Lite has APIs for mobile apps or embedded devices to generate and deploy TensorFlow models.[63] These models are compressed and optimized in order to be more efficient and have a higher performance on smaller capacity devices.[64]

TensorFlow Lite uses FlatBuffers as the data serialization format for network models, eschewing the Protocol Buffers format used by standard TensorFlow models.[64]

TFX

TensorFlow Extended (abbrev. TFX) provides numerous components to perform all the operations needed for end-to-end production.[65] Components include loading, validating, and transforming data, tuning, training, and evaluating the machine learning model, and pushing the model itself into production.[44][65]

Integrations

Numpy

Numpy is one of the most popular Python data libraries, and TensorFlow offers integration and compatibility with its data structures.[66] Numpy NDarrays, the library's native datatype, are automatically converted to TensorFlow Tensors in TF operations; the same is also true vice versa.[66] This allows for the two libraries to work in unison without requiring the user to write explicit data conversions. Moreover, the integration extends to memory optimization by having TF Tensors share the underlying memory representations of Numpy NDarrays whenever possible.[66]

Extensions

TensorFlow also offers a variety of libraries and extensions to advance and extend the models and methods used.[67] For example, TensorFlow Recommenders and TensorFlow Graphics are libraries for their respective functionalities in recommendation systems and graphics, TensorFlow Federated provides a framework for decentralized data, and TensorFlow Cloud allows users to directly interact with Google Cloud to integrate their local code to Google Cloud.[68] Other add-ons, libraries, and frameworks include TensorFlow Model Optimization, TensorFlow Probability, TensorFlow Quantum, and TensorFlow Decision Forests.[67][68]

Google Colab

Google also released Colaboratory, a TensorFlow Jupyter notebook environment that does not require any setup.[69] It runs on Google Cloud and allows users free access to GPUs and the ability to store and share notebooks on Google Drive.[70]

Google JAX

Main article: Google JAX

Google JAX is a machine learning framework for transforming numerical functions.[71][72][73] It is described as bringing together a modified version of autograd (automatic obtaining of the gradient function through differentiation of a function) and TensorFlow's XLA (Accelerated Linear Algebra). It is designed to follow the structure and workflow of NumPy as closely as possible and works with TensorFlow as well as other frameworks such as PyTorch. The primary functions of JAX are:[71]

  1. grad: automatic differentiation
  2. jit: compilation
  3. vmap: auto-vectorization
  4. pmap: SPMD programming

Applications

Medical

GE Healthcare used TensorFlow to increase the speed and accuracy of MRIs in identifying specific body parts.[74] Google used TensorFlow to create DermAssist, a free mobile application that allows users to take pictures of their skin and identify potential health complications.[75] Sinovation Ventures used TensorFlow to identify and classify eye diseases from optical coherence tomography (OCT) scans.[75]

Social media

Twitter implemented TensorFlow to rank tweets by importance for a given user, and changed their platform to show tweets in order of this ranking.[76] Previously, tweets were simply shown in reverse chronological order.[76] The photo sharing app VSCO used TensorFlow to help suggest custom filters for photos.[75]

Search Engine

Google officially released RankBrain on October 26, 2015, backed by TensorFlow.[77]

Education

InSpace, a virtual learning platform, used TensorFlow to filter out toxic chat messages in classrooms.[78] Liulishuo, an online English learning platform, utilized TensorFlow to create an adaptive curriculum for each student.[79] TensorFlow was used to accurately assess a student's current abilities, and also helped decide the best future content to show based on those capabilities.[79]

Retail

The e-commerce platform Carousell used TensorFlow to provide personalized recommendations for customers.[75] The cosmetics company ModiFace used TensorFlow to create an augmented reality experience for customers to test various shades of make-up on their face.[80]

2016 comparison of original photo (left) and with TensorFlow neural style applied (right)

Research

TensorFlow is the foundation for the automated image-captioning software DeepDream.[81]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "Credits". TensorFlow.org. Archived from the original on November 17, 2015. Retrieved November 10, 2015.
  2. ^ "TensorFlow.js". Archived from the original on May 6, 2018. Retrieved June 28, 2018.
  3. ^ Abadi, Martín; Barham, Paul; Chen, Jianmin; Chen, Zhifeng; Davis, Andy; Dean, Jeffrey; Devin, Matthieu; Ghemawat, Sanjay; Irving, Geoffrey; Isard, Michael; Kudlur, Manjunath; Levenberg, Josh; Monga, Rajat; Moore, Sherry; Murray, Derek G.; Steiner, Benoit; Tucker, Paul; Vasudevan, Vijay; Warden, Pete; Wicke, Martin; Yu, Yuan; Zheng, Xiaoqiang (2016). TensorFlow: A System for Large-Scale Machine Learning (PDF). Proceedings of the 12th USENIX Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation (OSDI ’16). arXiv:1605.08695. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 12, 2020. Retrieved October 26, 2020.
  4. ^ TensorFlow: Open source machine learning. Google. 2015. Archived from the original on November 11, 2021. "It is machine learning software being used for various kinds of perceptual and language understanding tasks" – Jeffrey Dean, minute 0:47 / 2:17 from YouTube clip
  5. ^ "Top 30 Open Source Projects". Open Source Project Velocity by CNCF. Retrieved October 12, 2023.
  6. ^ "Welcome to the PaddlePaddle GitHub". PaddlePaddle Official Github Repo. Retrieved October 28, 2024.
  7. ^ Video clip by Google about TensorFlow 2015 at minute 0:15/2:17
  8. ^ Video clip by Google about TensorFlow 2015 at minute 0:26/2:17
  9. ^ Dean et al 2015, p. 2
  10. ^ Metz, Cade (November 9, 2015). "Google Just Open Sourced TensorFlow, Its Artificial Intelligence Engine". Wired. Archived from the original on November 9, 2015. Retrieved November 10, 2015.
  11. ^ a b TensorFlow (September 30, 2019). "TensorFlow 2.0 is now available!". Medium. Archived from the original on October 7, 2019. Retrieved November 24, 2019.
  12. ^ a b "API Documentation". Archived from the original on November 16, 2015. Retrieved June 27, 2018.,
  13. ^ Dean, Jeff; Monga, Rajat; et al. (November 9, 2015). "TensorFlow: Large-scale machine learning on heterogeneous systems" (PDF). TensorFlow.org. Google Research. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 20, 2015. Retrieved November 10, 2015.
  14. ^ Perez, Sarah (November 9, 2015). "Google Open-Sources The Machine Learning Tech Behind Google Photos Search, Smart Reply And More". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on November 9, 2015. Retrieved November 11, 2015.
  15. ^ Oremus, Will (November 9, 2015). "What Is TensorFlow, and Why Is Google So Excited About It?". Slate. Archived from the original on November 10, 2015. Retrieved November 11, 2015.
  16. ^ Ward-Bailey, Jeff (November 25, 2015). "Google chairman: We're making 'real progress' on artificial intelligence". CSMonitor. Archived from the original on September 16, 2015. Retrieved November 25, 2015.
  17. ^ TensorFlow Developers (2022). "Tensorflow Release 1.0.0". GitHub. doi:10.5281/zenodo.4724125. Archived from the original on February 27, 2021. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
  18. ^ Metz, Cade (November 10, 2015). "TensorFlow, Google's Open Source AI, Points to a Fast-Changing Hardware World". Wired. Archived from the original on November 11, 2015. Retrieved November 11, 2015.
  19. ^ "Introduction to tensors". tensorflow.org. Archived from the original on May 26, 2024. Retrieved March 3, 2024.
  20. ^ Machine Learning: Google I/O 2016 Minute 07:30/44:44 Archived December 21, 2016, at the Wayback Machine accessdate=2016-06-05
  21. ^ TensorFlow (March 30, 2018). "Introducing TensorFlow.js: Machine Learning in Javascript". Medium. Archived from the original on March 30, 2018. Retrieved May 24, 2019.
  22. ^ TensorFlow (January 14, 2019). "What's coming in TensorFlow 2.0". Medium. Archived from the original on January 14, 2019. Retrieved May 24, 2019.
  23. ^ TensorFlow (May 9, 2019). "Introducing TensorFlow Graphics: Computer Graphics Meets Deep Learning". Medium. Archived from the original on May 9, 2019. Retrieved May 24, 2019.
  24. ^ Jouppi, Norm. "Google supercharges machine learning tasks with TPU custom chip". Google Cloud Platform Blog. Archived from the original on May 18, 2016. Retrieved May 19, 2016.
  25. ^ "Build and train machine learning models on our new Google Cloud TPUs". Google. May 17, 2017. Archived from the original on May 17, 2017. Retrieved May 18, 2017.
  26. ^ "Cloud TPU". Google Cloud. Archived from the original on May 17, 2017. Retrieved May 24, 2019.
  27. ^ "Cloud TPU machine learning accelerators now available in beta". Google Cloud Platform Blog. Archived from the original on February 12, 2018. Retrieved February 12, 2018.
  28. ^ Kundu, Kishalaya (July 26, 2018). "Google Announces Edge TPU, Cloud IoT Edge at Cloud Next 2018". Beebom. Archived from the original on May 26, 2024. Retrieved February 2, 2019.
  29. ^ "Google's new machine learning framework is going to put more AI on your phone". May 17, 2017. Archived from the original on May 17, 2017. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
  30. ^ TensorFlow (January 16, 2019). "TensorFlow Lite Now Faster with Mobile GPUs (Developer Preview)". Medium. Archived from the original on January 16, 2019. Retrieved May 24, 2019.
  31. ^ "uTensor and Tensor Flow Announcement | Mbed". os.mbed.com. Archived from the original on May 9, 2019. Retrieved May 24, 2019.
  32. ^ a b He, Horace (October 10, 2019). "The State of Machine Learning Frameworks in 2019". The Gradient. Archived from the original on October 10, 2019. Retrieved May 22, 2020.
  33. ^ a b Ciaramella, Alberto; Ciaramella, Marco (July 2024). Introduction to Artificial Intelligence: from data analysis to generative AI. Intellisemantic Editions. ISBN 9788894787603.
  34. ^ a b "Introduction to gradients and automatic differentiation". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on October 28, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  35. ^ a b c "Eager execution | TensorFlow Core". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  36. ^ a b "Module: tf.distribute | TensorFlow Core v2.6.1". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on May 26, 2024. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  37. ^ Sigeru., Omatu (2014). Distributed Computing and Artificial Intelligence, 11th International Conference. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-07593-8. OCLC 980886715. Archived from the original on May 26, 2024. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  38. ^ a b "Module: tf.losses | TensorFlow Core v2.6.1". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on October 27, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  39. ^ "Module: tf.metrics | TensorFlow Core v2.6.1". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  40. ^ a b "Module: tf.nn | TensorFlow Core v2.7.0". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on May 26, 2024. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  41. ^ "Module: tf.optimizers | TensorFlow Core v2.7.0". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on October 30, 2021. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  42. ^ Dogo, E. M.; Afolabi, O. J.; Nwulu, N. I.; Twala, B.; Aigbavboa, C. O. (December 2018). "A Comparative Analysis of Gradient Descent-Based Optimization Algorithms on Convolutional Neural Networks". 2018 International Conference on Computational Techniques, Electronics and Mechanical Systems (CTEMS). pp. 92–99. doi:10.1109/CTEMS.2018.8769211. ISBN 978-1-5386-7709-4. S2CID 198931032. Archived from the original on May 26, 2024. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  43. ^ "TensorFlow Core | Machine Learning for Beginners and Experts". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  44. ^ a b c "Introduction to TensorFlow". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved October 28, 2021.
  45. ^ "All symbols in TensorFlow 2 | TensorFlow Core v2.7.0". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 6, 2021. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  46. ^ "TensorFlow.js". js.tensorflow.org. Archived from the original on May 26, 2024. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  47. ^ "TensorFlow C++ API Reference | TensorFlow Core v2.7.0". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  48. ^ "org.tensorflow | Java". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 6, 2021. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  49. ^ Icaza, Miguel de (February 17, 2018). "TensorFlowSharp: TensorFlow API for .NET languages". GitHub. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. Retrieved February 18, 2018.
  50. ^ Chen, Haiping (December 11, 2018). "TensorFlow.NET: .NET Standard bindings for TensorFlow". GitHub. Archived from the original on July 12, 2019. Retrieved December 11, 2018.
  51. ^ "haskell: Haskell bindings for TensorFlow". tensorflow. February 17, 2018. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. Retrieved February 18, 2018.
  52. ^ Malmaud, Jon (August 12, 2019). "A Julia wrapper for TensorFlow". GitHub. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. Retrieved August 14, 2019. operations like sin, * (matrix multiplication), .* (element-wise multiplication), etc [..]. Compare to Python, which requires learning specialized namespaced functions like tf.matmul.
  53. ^ "A MATLAB wrapper for TensorFlow Core". GitHub. November 3, 2019. Archived from the original on September 14, 2020. Retrieved February 13, 2020.
  54. ^ "Use TensorFlow from Pascal (FreePascal, Lazarus, etc.)". GitHub. January 19, 2023. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved January 20, 2023.
  55. ^ "tensorflow: TensorFlow for R". RStudio. February 17, 2018. Archived from the original on January 4, 2017. Retrieved February 18, 2018.
  56. ^ Platanios, Anthony (February 17, 2018). "tensorflow_scala: TensorFlow API for the Scala Programming Language". GitHub. Archived from the original on February 18, 2019. Retrieved February 18, 2018.
  57. ^ "rust: Rust language bindings for TensorFlow". tensorflow. February 17, 2018. Archived from the original on July 24, 2017. Retrieved February 18, 2018.
  58. ^ Mazare, Laurent (February 16, 2018). "tensorflow-ocaml: OCaml bindings for TensorFlow". GitHub. Archived from the original on June 11, 2018. Retrieved February 18, 2018.
  59. ^ "fazibear/tensorflow.cr". GitHub. Archived from the original on June 27, 2018. Retrieved October 10, 2018.
  60. ^ "tensorflow package - github.com/tensorflow/tensorflow/tensorflow/go - pkg.go.dev". pkg.go.dev. Archived from the original on November 6, 2021. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  61. ^ "Swift for TensorFlow (In Archive Mode)". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 6, 2021. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  62. ^ "TensorFlow.js | Machine Learning for JavaScript Developers". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved October 28, 2021.
  63. ^ "TensorFlow Lite | ML for Mobile and Edge Devices". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved November 1, 2021.
  64. ^ a b "TensorFlow Lite". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 2, 2021. Retrieved November 1, 2021.
  65. ^ a b "TensorFlow Extended (TFX) | ML Production Pipelines". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved November 2, 2021.
  66. ^ a b c "Customization basics: tensors and operations | TensorFlow Core". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 6, 2021. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  67. ^ a b "Guide | TensorFlow Core". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on July 17, 2019. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  68. ^ a b "Libraries & extensions". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  69. ^ "Colaboratory – Google". research.google.com. Archived from the original on October 24, 2017. Retrieved November 10, 2018.
  70. ^ "Google Colaboratory". colab.research.google.com. Archived from the original on February 3, 2021. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
  71. ^ a b Bradbury, James; Frostig, Roy; Hawkins, Peter; Johnson, Matthew James; Leary, Chris; MacLaurin, Dougal; Necula, George; Paszke, Adam; Vanderplas, Jake; Wanderman-Milne, Skye; Zhang, Qiao (June 18, 2022), "JAX: Autograd and XLA", Astrophysics Source Code Library, Google, Bibcode:2021ascl.soft11002B, archived from the original on June 18, 2022, retrieved June 18, 2022
  72. ^ "Using JAX to accelerate our research". www.deepmind.com. Archived from the original on June 18, 2022. Retrieved June 18, 2022.
  73. ^ "Why is Google's JAX so popular?". Analytics India Magazine. April 25, 2022. Archived from the original on June 18, 2022. Retrieved June 18, 2022.
  74. ^ "Intelligent Scanning Using Deep Learning for MRI". Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  75. ^ a b c d "Case Studies and Mentions". TensorFlow. Archived from the original on October 26, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  76. ^ a b "Ranking Tweets with TensorFlow". Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  77. ^ Davies, Dave (September 2, 2020). "A Complete Guide to the Google RankBrain Algorithm". Search Engine Journal. Archived from the original on November 6, 2021. Retrieved October 15, 2024.
  78. ^ "InSpace: A new video conferencing platform that uses TensorFlow.js for toxicity filters in chat". Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  79. ^ a b Xulin. "流利说基于 TensorFlow 的自适应系统实践". Weixin Official Accounts Platform. Archived from the original on November 6, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  80. ^ "How Modiface utilized TensorFlow.js in production for AR makeup try on in the browser". Archived from the original on November 4, 2021. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  81. ^ Byrne, Michael (November 11, 2015). "Google Offers Up Its Entire Machine Learning Library as Open-Source Software". Vice. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved November 11, 2015.

Further reading

Read other articles:

Alessandro De Stefani

Alessandro De StefaniDe Stefani pada 1955.Lahir(1891-01-01)1 Januari 1891Friuli-Venezia Giulia, ItaliaMeninggal13 Mei 1970(1970-05-13) (umur 79)Roma, ItaliaPekerjaanPenulis naskahTahun aktif1918-1962 Alessandro De Stefani (1 Januari 1891 – 13 Mei 1970) adalah seorang penulis naskah asal Italia. Ia menulis untuk 90 film antara 1918 dan 1962.[1] Filmografi pilihan Maciste on Vacation (1921) Paradise (1932) The Table of the Poor (1932) Your Money or Your Life (...

 

 

Europa

 Nota: Para outros significados, veja Europa (desambiguação). Europa Mapa da Europa Localização da Europa no globo terrestre. Gentílico Europeu Vizinhos Ásia, África Divisões    - Países 50 (lista)  - Dependências 8 Área    - Total 10 180 000 km²  - Maior país Rússia  - Menor país Vaticano Extremos de elevação    - Ponto mais alto Monte Elbrus (5 642 m nmm), Rússia  - Ponto mais baixo Mar Cáspio (-28 m nmm), R...

 

 

المفوضية الفلسطينية العامة في كندا

المفوضية الفلسطينية العامة في كندا فلسطين كندا   الإحداثيات 45°25′12″N 75°41′09″W / 45.4201°N 75.6857°W / 45.4201; -75.6857  البلد كندا  المكان أوتاوا الاختصاص كندا  السَفير منى أبو عمارة الموقع الالكتروني الموقع الرسمي  تعديل مصدري - تعديل   المفوضية الفلسطينية ال�...

Georgia Tech

Public university in Atlanta, Georgia, US Georgia Institute of TechnologyFormer nameGeorgia School of Technology (1885–1948)MottoProgress and ServiceTypePublic research universityEstablishedOctober 13, 1885; 138 years ago (1885-10-13)[1]Parent institutionUniversity System of GeorgiaAccreditationSACSAcademic affiliationAAUGRAORAUURASpace-grantEndowment$2.97 billion (2021)[2]Budget$2.12 billion (2021)[3]PresidentÁngel CabreraProvostSteven McLaughlin&...

 

 

René Tomasini

Pour les articles homonymes, voir Tomasini. René Tomasini René Tomasini (à gauche), secrétaire national de l'Union des démocrates pour la République en compagnie de Jean-Pierre Cassabel, député-maire de Castelnaudary, lors de l'inauguration d'une stèle en hommage au général de Gaulle, en 1971 à Carcassonne. Fonctions Député français 9 décembre 1958 – 1er septembre 1980(21 ans, 8 mois et 23 jours) Élection 30 novembre 1958 Réélection 25 novembre 196212 mars...

 

 

Minnesota Wild

Artikel ini tidak memiliki referensi atau sumber tepercaya sehingga isinya tidak bisa dipastikan. Tolong bantu perbaiki artikel ini dengan menambahkan referensi yang layak. Tulisan tanpa sumber dapat dipertanyakan dan dihapus sewaktu-waktu.Cari sumber: Minnesota Wild – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTOR Minnesota Wild, Xcel Energy Center Minnesota Wild adalah tim hoki es profesional dari St. Paul, Minnesota. Klub ini adalah anggota North...

Slaven Bilić

Slaven Bilić Bilic (kanan) dengan pelatih tim utama Edin Terzic Bulan Juli 2015Informasi pribadiTanggal lahir 11 September 1968 (umur 55)Tempat lahir Split, SFR YugoslaviaTinggi 1,89 m (6 ft 2+1⁄2 in)Posisi bermain BekInformasi klubKlub saat ini West Bromwich Albion (Pelatih)Karier junior1977–1988 Hajduk SplitKarier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)1988–1993 Hajduk Split 109 (13)1988 → Primorac (pinjaman) 1988–1989 → Šibenik (pinjaman) 33 (7)1993–1996 Karl...

 

 

俄亥俄州

  「俄亥俄」重定向至此。关于其他用法，请见「俄亥俄 (消歧义)」。 俄亥俄州 美國联邦州State of Ohio 州旗州徽綽號：七葉果之州地图中高亮部分为俄亥俄州坐标：38°27'N－41°58'N, 80°32'W－84°49'W国家 美國加入聯邦1803年3月1日，在1953年8月7日追溯頒定（第17个加入联邦）首府哥倫布（及最大城市）政府 • 州长（英语：List of Governors of {{{Name}}}]]） •&...

 

 

哈萨克斯坦总统

此条目序言章节没有充分总结全文内容要点。 (2019年3月21日)请考虑扩充序言，清晰概述条目所有重點。请在条目的讨论页讨论此问题。 哈萨克斯坦總統哈薩克總統旗現任Қасым-Жомарт Кемелұлы Тоқаев卡瑟姆若马尔特·托卡耶夫自2019年3月20日在任任期7年首任努尔苏丹·纳扎尔巴耶夫设立1990年4月24日（哈薩克蘇維埃社會主義共和國總統） 哈萨克斯坦 哈萨克斯坦政府...

مصباح هاليد الفلز

مصباح هاليد الفلز مصباح هاليد الفلز (ملاحظة 1) هو مصباح كهربائي يصدر الضوء عبر حدوث قوس كهربائي داخل مزيج غازي مكون من بخار الزئبق وهاليدات فلزية (غالباً من البروم أو اليود).[1][2] طور هذا المصباح في ستينات القرن العشرين، وهو يصنف ضمن مصابيح تفريغ الغاز مرتفعة الشدة، و�...

 

 

Raster scan

Rectangular pattern of image capture and reconstruction This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Raster scan – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Raster-scan display sample; visible gaps between the horizontal scan lines divide each chara...

 

 

Enrique del Moral

Mexican architect (1905–1987) This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Enrique del Moral – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2022...

Anima Yell!

Artikel ini tidak memiliki referensi atau sumber tepercaya sehingga isinya tidak bisa dipastikan. Tolong bantu perbaiki artikel ini dengan menambahkan referensi yang layak. Tulisan tanpa sumber dapat dipertanyakan dan dihapus sewaktu-waktu.Cari sumber: Anima Yell! – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTOR Anima Yell!Sampul Anima Yell! Volume 1 oleh Houbunshaアニマエール！(Anima Ēru!)GenreOlahraga (pemandu sorak) MangaPengarangTsukasa ...

 

 

Corruption in Malawi

Institutional corruption in the country Political corruption Forms and concepts Bribery Cronyism Economics of corruption Electoral fraud Elite capture Influence peddling Kleptocracy Mafia state Nepotism Pyrrhic defeat theory Slush fund Simony State capture State-corporate crime Throffer Anti-corruption International Anti-Corruption Court Group of States Against Corruption International Anti-Corruption Academy International Anti-Corruption Day United Nations Convention against Corruption Corru...

 

 

Average high cost multiple

In unemployment insurance (UI) in the United States, the average high-cost multiple (AHCM) is a commonly used actuarial measure of Unemployment Trust Fund adequacy. Technically, AHCM is defined as reserve ratio (i.e., the balance of UI trust fund expressed as % of total wages paid in covered employment) divided by average cost rate of three high-cost years in the state's recent history (typically 20 years or a period covering three recessions, whichever is longer). In this definition, c...

List of companies of Ireland

Location of Ireland This is a list of notable companies based in Ireland, or subsidiaries according to their sector. It includes companies from the entire island. The state of the Republic of Ireland covers five-sixths of the island, with Northern Ireland, part of the United Kingdom, covering the remainder in the north-east. Each has separate regulatory and registration authorities. About companies in Ireland Irish companies fall into three categories: Private limited companies, which carry ...

 

 

Понсе, Ванесса

У этого человека испанская фамилия; здесь Понсе де Леон — фамилия отца, Санчес — фамилия матери. Ванесса Понсе де Леонисп. Silvia Vanessa Ponce de León Sánchez Имя при рождении Сильвия Ванесса Понсе де Леон Санчес Дата рождения 7 марта 1992(1992-03-07) (32 года) Место рождения Мехико, Мексик�...

 

 

Geay (Deux-Sèvres)

Pour les articles homonymes, voir Geay. Geay L'église Saint-Maixent. Administration Pays France Région Nouvelle-Aquitaine Département Deux-Sèvres Arrondissement Bressuire Intercommunalité Communauté d'agglomération du Bocage Bressuirais Maire Mandat Jean-Marc Bernard 2020-2026 Code postal 79330 Code commune 79131 Démographie Gentilé Geayais, Geayaises ou Geayiens, Geayiennes Populationmunicipale 329 hab. (2021 ) Densité 17 hab./km2 Géographie Coordonnées 46° 52′...

Kabupaten Goryeong

Goryeong 고령군KabupatenTranskripsi Korea • Hangul고령군 • Hanja高靈郡 • Revised RomanizationGoryeong-gun • McCune-ReischauerKoryŏng-gun Logo resmi GoryeongLambang GoryeongLokasi di Korea SelatanNegara Korea SelatanRegionYeongnamPembagian administratif1 eup, 7 myeonLuas • Total383,7 km2 (1,481 sq mi)Populasi (2004) • Total35.000 • Kepadatan91,2/km2 (2,360/sq mi)...

 

 

Éclipse lunaire du 17 octobre 2005

Éclipse partielle de Lunedu 17 octobre 2005 Depuis Taipei (Taïwan), 12 h 4 UTC. Schéma de l'évolution de l'éclipse, tandis que la Lune passe de droite (Ouest) à gauche (Est) dans l'ombre de la Terre. Gamma 0,9796 Magnitude 0,068 Localisation Océan Pacifique, Asie, Australie, Amérique du Nord Saros (membre de la série) 146 (10 sur 72) Durée (h:min:s) Phases partielles 55 min 58 s Phases pénombrales 4 h 19 min 49 s Contacts (UTC) P1 9:53:27 U1 11:35:18 Maximum 12:03:22 U4 ...