Morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of morphemes and other units of meaning in the Odia language. Morphemes (called ରୁପିମ) are the smallest units of the Odia language that carry and convey a unique meaning and is grammatically appropriate. A morpheme in Odia is the most minuscule meaningful constituent which combines and synthesizes the phonemes into a meaningful expression through its (morpheme's) form & structure. Thus, in essence, the morpheme is a structural combination of phonemes in Odia. In other words, in the Odia language, the morpheme is a combination of sounds that possess and convey a meaning. A morpheme is not necessarily a meaningful word in Odia. In Odia, every morpheme is either a base or an affix (prefix or a suffix).[1][2]
The existence and span of rules of morphemes in a language depend on the "morphology" in that particular language. In a language having greater morphology, a word would have an internal compositional structure in terms of word-pieces (i.e. free morphemes – Bases) and those would also possess bound morphemes like affixes. Such a morpheme-rich language is termed as synthetic language. To the contrary, an isolating language uses independent words and in turn, the words lack internal structure. A synthetic language tends to employ affixes and internal modification of roots (i.e. free morphemes – Bases) for the same purpose of expressing additional meanings.
Odia is a moderately synthetic language. It contains definite synthetic features, such as the bound morphemes mark tense, number (plurality), gender etc. However, though the Odia language has a larger number of derivational affixes, it has virtually no inflectional morphology.
Derivational synthesis in Odia morphology
Odia morphemes of different types (nouns, verbs, affixes etc.) combine to create new words.
Relational synthesis in Odia morphology
In relationally synthesized Odia words, base morphemes (root words) join with bound morphemes to express grammatical function.
The Odia language has a tendency for commonly used words to have a 2:1 morpheme-word ratio i.e. on average; there are two morphemes in a single word. Because of this tendency, Odia is said to "possess morphology" since almost each used word has an internal compositional structure in terms of morphemes. In the Odia language, generally, separate words are used to express syntactic relationships which imparts an isolating tendency, while using inflectional morphology could have made the language more synthetic.
Components of a morpheme
There are several components of a morpheme in the Odia language:
Base: A morpheme that imparts meaning to a word.
Derivational morpheme: These morphemes alter and/or modify the meaning of the word and may create a whole new word.
Allomorphs: These are different phonetic forms or variations of a morpheme. The final morphemes in several words are pronounced differently, but they all signify plurality.
Homonyms: are morphemes that are spelled similarly but have different meanings. Such examples abound in Odia grammar and are termed as similarly pronounced words (ସମୋଚ୍ଚାରିତ ଶବ୍ଦ). Examples:
ଜୀବନ (life) and ଜୀବନ (water), ହରି (Lord Vishnu) and ହରି (Monkey).
Homophones: These are morphemes that sound alike but have different meanings and spellings. Examples:
ସିତ (Black colour), ସୀତ (Plough head).
Classification
Morphemes in Odia may be classified, on the basis of word formation, characteristics into the following types:
Type
Structure
Bound
Free
Sub-types
Root
1. Simple 2. Made up of a single morpheme 3. Basis for compounding and affixation
Yes/No
Yes/No
None
Stem
1. Simple/Complex 2. Composed of one/multiple morphemes 3. Basis for affixation
Yes/No
Yes/No
None
Affix
Simple
Yes
No
Prefix, Infix, Suffix, Suprafix, Simulfix, and Circumfix
Clitic
Simple
Yes (Phonologically)
Yes (Syntactically)
Proclitic and Enclitic
Types of morphemes
Free morpheme
Independent meaningful units are free morphemes. These are elemental words. Free morpheme can stand alone as a word without help of another morpheme. It does not need anything attached to it to make a word.
ରାମ ଭାତ ଖାଉଛି = ରାମ ଭାତ(କୁ) ଖାଉଛି: କର୍ମ
ରାତି ବିତାଇଲା = ରାତି(ରେ) ବିତାଇଲା: ଅଧିକରଣ
ରାମ କଥା ଶୁଣିଲି = ରାମ(ର) କଥା ଶୁଣିଲି: ସମ୍ବନ୍ଧ ପଦ
Bound morpheme
Units which are not independent words but convey meaning on account of their usage on combination are bound morphemes. A bound morpheme is a sound or a combination of sounds that cannot stand on its own as a meaningful word. Most of the bound morphemes in Odia are ‘affixes’. An affix is a morpheme that may come at the beginning (Termed as Prefix) or the end (Termed as Suffix) of a base morpheme.
In Odia, prefixes are bound morphemes are affixes that come before a base morpheme. For example:
ଉପକୂଳ = ଉପ + କୂଳ
ଉପନଦୀ = ଉପ + ନଦୀ
ଅପବାଦ = ଅପ + ବାଦ
ଅପରୂପ = ଅପ + ରୂପ
A suffix is an affix that comes after a base morpheme. Example of suffix Bound Morphemes are:
ସାଧୁତା = ସାଧୁ + ତା
ବୀରତ୍ୱ = ବୀର + ତ୍ୱ
କାମିକା = କାମ + ଇକା
ନିସୃୃତ = ନିଃ + କୃତ
ତା, ତ୍ୱ, ଇକା are bound morphemes used suffixes.
/ସାଧୁ/, /ବୀର/, /କାମ/ etc. are ‘complete bound morphemes’ /ତା/, /ତ୍ୱ/, /ଇକା/ etc. are ‘dissected or partial bound morphemes’.
The free morphemes carry a fixed meaning while the bound morphemes exhibit large scale variations in meanings. The variable and changing meanings of the bound morphemes impart diversity to word meanings and enrich the language.
Complex or combined morpheme
In a complex morpheme, multiple free morphemes are combined to form a word and impart meaning. More than one Stem Morphemes create a complex morpheme.
Noun + Noun:
ଘରଭଡ଼ା = ଘର + ଭଡ଼ା
ରଙ୍ଗମଞ୍ଚ = ରଙ୍ଗ + ମଞ୍ଚ
Adjective + Noun:
କଳା + ପଟା = କଳାପଟା
Noun + Adjective:
ସର୍ବ + ସାଧାରଣ = ସର୍ବସାଧାରଣ
Adjective + Adjective:
ଭୀମ + କାନ୍ତ = ଭୀମକାନ୍ତ
Mixed morpheme
Where both free and bound morphemes combine to form another morpheme, the result is called a mixed morpheme. The mixed morpheme may result from the following combinations:
ମଣିଷ + ପଣ + ଇଆ = ମଣିଷପଣ + ଇଆ = ମଣିଷପଣିଆ
ମଣିଷପଣ is a complex morpheme while ଇଆ is a bound morpheme.
Inflectional morphemes can only be suffixes. An inflectional morpheme creates a change in the function of the word. Example, ଇଲା with ସୁଗନ୍ଧ, giving rise to ସୁଗନ୍ଧିଲା, indicates past tense. Odia has innumerable inflectional morphemes, unlike only seven in English Language. Among others, these include the following:
ମାନେ, ଗୁଡ଼ା, ଗୁଡ଼ିଏ (plural, -s in English language)
ର, ଙ୍କର, ମାନଙ୍କ, ମାନଙ୍କର; -'s (possessive) are noun inflections;
ଇଲା, ନିର୍ମିତିଲା past tense (-ed),
ଉଛି; -ing (present participle) are verb inflections;
In Odia morphology, there are no adjective and adverb inflections like the comparative (-er) and superlative (-est) of English language. Instead, bound morphemes like ଠାରୁ and ରୁ, and free morphemes like ତୁଳନାରେ etc. are used.
Marker morpheme
In linguistics, a marker is a morpheme, mostly bound, that indicates the grammatical function of the target (marked) word or sentence. In a language like Odia with isolating language tendencies, it is possible to express syntactic information via separate grammatical words instead of morphology (with bound morphemes). Therefore, the marker morphemes are easily distinguished.
Verb morpheme
Verb roots can take transformation and function as morphemes.
ଖା + ଇଆ = ଖିଆ = ମଣିଷଖିଆ ବାଘ
ପ୍ରଭାବ + ଇଆ = ପ୍ରଭାବିଆ = ପ୍ରଭାବିଆ ମଣିଷ
Verb Morpheme can be either continuous morphemes or perfect morphemes on the basis of tense.
Verb continuous morphemes:
ଖା + ଇ = ଖାଇ
ଅନୁବାଦ + ଇ = ଅନୁବାଦି
Verb perfect morphemes:
ଖା + ଇଲା = ଖାଇଲା
ଅନୁଭାବ + ଇଲା = ଅନୁଭାବିଲା
Sub-morpheme
Sub-morphemes are metamorphosis of actual morphemes. Sub-morphemes are also called complementary morphemes or meta-morphemes. Sub-morphemes may arise on account of changes in number of noun morphemes or tense of verb morphemes or gender of noun morphemes, as under:
Number:
/ଗୋଟିଏ/ + /ଘର/ = /ଗୋଟିଏ ଘର/ One + House = A House
/ଗୁଡ଼ିଏ/ + /ଘର/ = / ଗୁଡ଼ିଏ ଘର/ Many + House = Many Houses
/ଗୋଟିଏ/ + /ଲୋକ/ = /ଲୋକଟିଏ /
/ଅନେକ/ + /ଲୋକ/ = /ଲୋକ/ Sub Morpheme: /ଏ /
Tense:
The sub-morphemes are different appearances of a morpheme at different tense. For instance, the present perfect morpheme in Odia is: /ଇଲା/
However, the present perfect sub-morpheme of /ଇଲା/ is /ଲା/. For instance:
/ଖା/ + /ଇଲା/ = /ଖାଇଲା/
/ପା/ + /ଇଲା/ = /ପାଇଲା/
are normal usage of /ଇଲା/.
However, the sub-morpheme is:
/ଗ/ + /ଲା/ = /ଗଲା/
/ଦେ/ + /ଲା/ = /ଦେଲା/
/ନେ/ + /ଲା/ = /ନେଲା/
Difference between morphemes, words and syllables in Odia
Even though morphemes combine to create a word in Odia, the morphemes are not always independent words. Some single morphemes are words while other words are composed of two or more morphemes.
In Odia, morphemes are also different from syllables. Many words have two or more syllables but only one morpheme. For example: ମୋ'ର. On the other hand, many words have two morphemes and only one syllable; examples include ଧନୀ, ମୋଟା.
Nouns
Nouns are those which are inflected by number, gender or case markers.
Number
There are two types of numbers in Odia:
singular- ଏକବଚନ ekabacana
plural- ବହୁବଚନ bahubacana
Singular denotes one and only one person or thing and the noun may be followed or preceded by singular specifiers or singular number markers. Plural which denotes number more than one person or thing, is formed by the addition of plural suffixes to the nouns which usually occur as singular.
The singular number markers occur as suffix:
Singular suffix
Suffix
Eg.
Meaning
ଟି ṭi
କଲମଟି kalamaṭi
pen
ଟା ṭā
ଝିଅଟା jhiaṭā
daughter
ଟିଏ ṭie
ପିଲାଟିଏ pilāṭie
child
The plural number occur with nominal forms as:
No suffix- uncountable nouns
Eg
Meaning
ଚିନି cini
sugar
ବାଲି bāli
sand
Plural suffix
Suffix
Eg.
Meaning
ମାନେ māne
ଲୋକମାନେ lokamāne
people
ମାନ māna
ଗ୍ରନ୍ଥମାନ granthamāna
holy books
ଗୁଡ଼ା guṛā (guḍā)
ଭାତଗୁଡ଼ା bhātaguḍā
boiled rice
ଗୁଡ଼ାଏ guṛāe (guḍāe)
ଫଳଗୁଡ଼ାଏ phaḷaguḍāe
fruits
ଗୁଡ଼ାକ guṛāka (guḍāka)
ଚାଉଳଗୁଡ଼ାକ cāuḷaguḍāka
rice
ଗୁଡ଼ିଏ guṛie (guḍie)
ଫୁଲଗୁଡ଼ିଏ phulaguḍie
flowers
ଗୁଡ଼ିକ guṛika (guḍika)
ନଦୀଗୁଡ଼ିକ nadīguḍika
rivers
ଏ e
ପିଲେ pile
children
ସବୁ sabu
ଗାଁସବୁ gā̃sabu
villages
ଶ୍ରେଣୀ śreṇī
ପର୍ବତଶ୍ରେଣୀ parbataśreṇī
mountains
ଯାକ ẏāka (jāka)
ଘରଯାକ gharajāka
houses
Gender
There is no grammatical gender in Odia, instead gender is lexical. Though gender plays no major role in grammatical agreement between subject and predicate but it is accounted for in nominal inflections. There are three types of gender:
masculine- ପୁଲିଙ୍ଗ puliṅga
feminine- ସ୍ତ୍ରୀଲିଙ୍ଗ striliṅga
common- ଉଭୟଲିଙ୍ଗ ubhayaliṅga
neuter- କ୍ଲୀବଲିଙ୍ଗ klibaliṅga
Different words for gender
Male
Meaning
Female
Meaning
ବାପା bāpā
father
ମା mā
mother
ପୁଅ pua
son
ଝିଅ jhia
daughter
ଭାଇ bhāi
brother
ଭଉଣୀ bhauṇī
sister
ସ୍ୱାମୀ swāmī
husband
ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ strī
wife
ରାଜା rājā
king
ରାଣୀ rāṇī
queen
ଷଣ୍ଢ ṣaṇḍha
bull
ଗାଈ gāī
cow
Prefix
Male
Meaning
Female
Meaning
ପୁରୁଷ ଲୋକ purusha loka
male person
ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ ଲୋକ stri loka
female person
ପୁଅ ପିଲା pua pilā
male child
ଝିଅ ପିଲା jhia pilā
female child
ପୁରୁଷ ଯାତ୍ରୀ purusha jātri
male passenger
ମହିଳା ଯାତ୍ରୀ mahiḷā jātri
female passenger
ଅଣ୍ଡିରା କୁକୁର aṇḍirā kukura
male dog
ମାଈ କୁକୁର māi kukura
female dog
ଅଣ୍ଡିରା ଛେଳି aṇḍirā cheḷi
male goat
ମାଈ ଛେଳି māi cheḷi
female goat
Suffix
Suffix
Male
Meaning
Female
Meaning
ଆ ā
ସଭ୍ୟ sabhya
male member
ସଭ୍ୟା sabhyā
female member
ଶିଷ୍ୟ śishya
male student
ଶିଷ୍ୟା śishyā
female student
ଦୁଷ୍ଟ dushṭa
naughty(m)
ଦୁଷ୍ଟା dushṭā
naughty(f)
ଆ ā (morpho-phonemic change- ଅ a to ଇ i)
ବାଳକ bāḷaka
boy
ବାଳିକା bāḷikā
girl
ଗାୟକ gāyaka
male singer
ଗାୟିକା gāyikā
female singer
ନାୟକ nāyaka
actor
ନାୟିକା nāyikā
actress
ଶିକ୍ଷକ śikshaka
male teacher
ଶିକ୍ଷିକା śikshikā
female teacher
ଈ i
ପୁତ୍ର putra
son
ପୁତ୍ରୀ putri
daughter
ବୁଢ଼ା buṛhā
old man
ବୁଢ଼ୀ buṛhi
old woman
କୁମାର kumāra
young boy
କୁମାରୀ kumāri
young girl
ସୁନ୍ଦର sundara
handsome(m)
ସୁନ୍ଦରୀ sundari
beautiful(f)
ଦେବ deba
god
ଦେବୀ debi
goddess
ଈ i (morpho-phonemic change- ଆ ā to ଈ i)
ଟୋକା ṭokā
boy
ଟୋକୀ ṭoki
girl
ଛୋଟା choṭā
lame(m)
ଛୋଟୀ choṭi
lame(f)
ଈ i (morpho-phonemic change- ଅ a to ଆ ā)
କଣା kaṇā
blind(m)
କାଣୀ kāṇi
blind(f)
ସଳା saḷā
brother-in-law
ସାଳୀ sāḷi
sister-in-law
ଈ i (morpho-phonemic change- ଆ ā to ରୀ ri)
ନେତା netā
male leader
ନେତ୍ରୀ netri
female leader
ରଚୈତା racaitā
author
ରଚୈତ୍ରୀ racaitri
female author
ଣୀ ṇi
ଚୋର cora
male thief
ଚୋରଣୀ coraṇi
female thief
ମୂଲିଆ muliā
male labourer
ମୂଲିଆଣୀ muliāṇi
female labourer
ଣୀ ṇi (morpho-phonemic change- ଅ a to ଆ ā)
ଠାକୁର ṭhākura
god
ଠାକୁରାଣୀ ṭhākurāṇi
goddess
ମାଷ୍ଟର māshṭara
male teacher
ମାଷ୍ଟ୍ରାଣୀ māshṭrāṇi
female teacher
ତନ୍ତୀ tanti
male weaver
ତନ୍ତୀଆଣୀ tantiāṇi
female weaver
ଡାକ୍ତର ḍāktara
male doctor
ଡାକ୍ତରାଣୀ ḍāktarāṇi
female doctor
ଣୀ ṇi (morpho-phonemic change- ଅ a to ଉ u)
ବାଘ bāgha
tiger
ବାଘୁଣୀ bāghuṇi
tigress
ଗଧ gadha
male donkey
ଗଧୁଣୀ gadhuṇi
female donkey
ଣୀ ṇi (morpho-phonemic change- ଆ ā to ଉ u)
ଚଷା cashā
male farmer
ଚାଷୁଣୀ cāshuṇi
female farmer
ଣୀ ṇi (morpho-phonemic change- ଇ i to ଉ u)
ମାଳି māḷi
male gardener
ମାଲୁଣୀ māluṇi
female gardener
ଭିକାରି bhikāri
male beggar
ଭିକାରୁଣୀ bhikāruṇi
female beggar
ନୀ ni
ବନ୍ଦୀ bandi
male prisoner
ବନ୍ଦିନୀ bandini
female prisoner
ଧନା dhanā
rich(m)
ଧନିନୀ dhanini
rich(f)
Case
Case inflection is a common characteristic of inflectional languages and are also known as case markers or "ବିଭକ୍ତି" (bibhakti) in Odia. It is both syntactical and morphological in nature. The function of the case is to indicate the grammatical or semantic relationships between nouns and also between nouns and verbs in a larger syntactic structure.
There are 8 types of cases in Odia:
Oblique case- used with case inflections (Accusative, Instrumental, Dative, Ablative, Genitive, Locative)
Personal Pronouns
Person
Case
Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural
1st
Direct
I
ମୁଁ
We
ଆମେ ଆମେମାନେ
Oblique
Me, My, Mine
ମୋ-
Us, Our, Ours
ଆମ- ଆମମାନଙ୍କ-
2nd
Direct
You
ତୁ (informal) ତୁମେ (formal) ଆପଣ (honorific)
You
ତୁମେମାନେ ଆପଣମାନେ (honorific)
Oblique
You, Your, Yours
ତୋ- (informal) ତୁମ- (formal) ଆପଣଙ୍କ- (honorific)
You, Your, Yours
ତୁମମାନଙ୍କ- ଆପଣମାନଙ୍କ- (honorific)
3rd (distal)
Direct
He/She
ସେ
They
ସେମାନେ
Oblique
Him/Her, His/Hers
ତା- (informal) ତାଙ୍କ- (formal)
Them/Their/Theirs
ସେମାନଙ୍କ-
Adjectives
Adjectives
Adjective type
Eg.
Meaning
adjective
ଭଲ ପୁଅ
good boy
ନାଲି ଫୁଲ
red flower
adjective(numeral)-specifier
ଦଶଟି ଫୁଲ
ten flowers
ପାଞ୍ଚଟା ଗାଁ
five villages
ଜଣେ ଛାତ୍ର
a student
ଦଶ ଜଣ ଶିକ୍ଷକ
ten teachers
adjective(numeral)-quantity/measure
ପାଞ୍ଚ କିଲୋ ପରିବା
5 kg vegetables
ଦଶ ଲିଟର ତେଲ
10 ltr oil
adjective adjective
ଅତି ବଡ଼ ଘର
very big house
ଭାରି ସୁନ୍ଦର ପିଲା
very beautiful child
adverb adjective
ଧୀର ମିଠା କଥା
soft sweet talk
compound adverb
କାନ୍ଦ କାନ୍ଦ ମୁଁହ
crying face
ହସ ହସ ଭାବ
smiling appearance
adverb verbal noun
ଧୀର ଚାଲି
slow walking
ଚଞ୍ଚଳ ଖିଆ
quick eating
Derived Adjectives
Type
Adjective type
Noun/Verb
Eg.
Meaning
Suffix
noun-ā
ରୋଗ
ରୋଗା ଲୋକ
ill person
ଦକ୍ଷିଣ
ଦକ୍ଷିଣା ପବନ
southern wind
verb-ā
ଶୁଣ
ଶୁଣା କଥା
heard matter
ଜାଣ
ଜଣା ଖବର
known news
noun verb-ā
ଚାଉଳ, ଧୋ
ଚାଉଳ ଧୁଆ ପାଣି
rice-washed water
ଲୁଗା, କାଚ୍
ଲୁଗା କଚା ସାବୁନ୍
cloth washing soap
verb-i
ଗୁଣ
ଗୁଣି ଲେକ
good person
ଦାମ୍
ଦାମି ଜିନିଷ
costly thing
Postpositions
Postpositions used with Inflections: The postpositions which occur with nominal forms and function as both morphological and syntactic markers. They are added to the nominal stems formed by noun-genitive case markers.
Postpositions used with Inflections
Postpositions
Meaning
Postpositions
Meaning
ଉପରେ
up
ପରି
like
ମଧ୍ୟରେ
between
ଭଳି
like
ଭିତରେ
in
ପ୍ରତି
per head
ତଳେ
under
ଜଗୁଁ
because of
ପାଖରେ
near
ହେତୁ
because of
ବଦଳରେ
instead of
ନେଇ
by
ନିକଟରେ
near
ଦ୍ଵାରା
by
ଠାରୁ
from
ଦ୍ୱାରା
by
ସକାସେ
for
ପାଇଁ
by
ନିମନ୍ତେ
for
ଠାରେ
at
ପରିବର୍ତ୍ତେ
instead of
ରୁପେ
like
Indeclinable Postpositions: Those which do not have inflected suffixes, function as indeclinables.
Postpositions as Indeclinables
Postpositions
Meaning
Postpositions
Meaning
ଭଳି
like
ପରି
like
ହେଲେ
then
ସବୁ
all
ସହିତ
with
ସଙ୍ଗେ
with
ନିମନ୍ତେ
for
ସାଥେ
with
ମଧ୍ୟ
also
ଅନ୍ତେ
then
ସହ
with
ଜାକ
all
Classifiers
When a noun is enumerated, it takes a group of morphemes called classifiers.
When the number denotes 'one', then the structure of the phrase:
classifier-numeral noun
Eg- ଜଣେ ପିଲା – one child
When the numeral is more than 'one', then the structure is:
numeral classifier noun
Eg- ଦୁଇ ଜଣ ପିଲା – two children
Classifiers have two types-
qualifiers- used for count nouns.
Nouns which occur with ଗୋଟା,ଗୋଟି or its variant -ଟା,-ଟି
Eg- ଗୋଟିଏ ପିଲା – one child, ଦୁଇଟି ପିଲା -two children
ଗୋଟିଏ ଘର – one house, ଦୁଇଟି ଘର – two houses
Other types of count nouns of human and non human forms include-
^Mahapatra, B.P. (2002). Linguistic Survey of India: Orissa(PDF). Kolkata, India: Language Division, Office of the Registrar General. p. 36. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
^Grierson, G.A. (1903–28). Linguistic Survey of India. India: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. p. 367. Retrieved 31 October 2020.
John Beames, A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. Londinii: Trübner, 1872–1879. 3 vols.
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