The IκB kinase (IkappaB kinase or IKK) is an enzyme complex that is involved in propagating the cellular response to inflammation,[1] specifically the regulation of lymphocytes.
The IκB kinase enzyme complex is part of the upstream NF-κBsignal transduction cascade. The IκBα (inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa B) protein inactivates the NF-κB transcription factor by masking the nuclear localization signals (NLS) of NF-κB proteins and keeping them sequestered in an inactive state in the cytoplasm.[2][3][4] Specifically, IKK phosphorylates the inhibitory IκBα protein.[5] This phosphorylation results in the dissociation of IκBα from NF-κB. NF-κB, which is now free, migrates into the nucleus and activates the expression of at least 150 genes; some of which are anti-apoptotic.
The α- and β-subunits together are catalytically active whereas the γ-subunit serves a regulatory function.
The IKK-α and IKK-β kinase subunits are homologous in structure, composed of a kinase domain, as well as leucine zipper and helix-loop-helix dimerization domains, and a carboxy-terminal NEMO-binding domain (NBD).[6] Mutational studies have revealed the identity of the NBD amino acid sequence as leucine-aspartate-tryptophan-serine-tryptophan-leucine, encoded by residues 737-742 and 738-743 of IKK-α and IKK-β, respectively.[7] The regulatory IKK-γ subunit, or NEMO, is composed of two coiled coil domains, a leucine zipper dimerization domain, and a zinc finger-binding domain.[6] Specifically, the NH2-terminus of NEMO binds to the NBD sequences on IKK-α and IKK-β, leaving the rest of NEMO accessible for interacting with regulatory proteins.[7]
IκB kinase activity is essential for activation of members of the nuclear factor-kB (NF-κB) family of transcription factors, which play a fundamental role in lymphocyte immunoregulation.[6][8] Activation of the canonical, or classical, NF-κB pathway begins in response to stimulation by various pro-inflammatory stimuli, including lipopolysaccharide (LPS) expressed on the surface of pathogens, or the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) or interleukin-1 (IL-1). Following immune cell stimulation, a signal transduction cascade leads to the activation of the IKK complex, an event characterized by the binding of NEMO to the homologous kinase subunits IKK-α and IKK-β. The IKK complex phosphorylates serine residues (S32 and S36) within the amino-terminal domain of inhibitor of NF-κB (IκBα) upon activation, consequently leading to its ubiquitination and subsequent degradation by the proteasome.[5] Degradation of IκBα releases the prototypical p50-p65 dimer for translocation to the nucleus, where it binds to κB sites and directs NF-κB-dependent transcriptional activity.[8] NF-κB target genes can be differentiated by their different functional roles within lymphocyte immunoregulation and include positive cell-cycle regulators, anti-apoptotic and survival factors, and pro-inflammatory genes. Collectively, activation of these immunoregulatory factors promotes lymphocyte proliferation, differentiation, growth, and survival.[9]
Regulation
Activation of the IKK complex is dependent on phosphorylation of serine residues within the kinase domain of IKK-β, though IKK-α phosphorylation occurs concurrently in endogenous systems. Recruitment of IKK kinases by the regulatory domains of NEMO leads to the phosphorylation of two serine residues within the activation loop of IKK-β, moving the activation loop away from the catalytic pocket, thus allowing access to ATP and IκBα peptide substrates. Furthermore, the IKK complex is capable of undergoing trans-autophosphorylation, where the activated IKK-β kinase subunit phosphorylates its adjacent IKK-α subunit, as well as other inactive IKK complexes, thus resulting in high levels of IκB kinase activity. Following IKK-mediated phosphorylation of IκBα and the subsequent decrease in IκB abundance, the activated IKK kinase subunits undergo extensive carboxy-terminal autophosphorylation, reaching a low activity state that is further susceptible to complete inactivation by phosphatases once upstream inflammatory signaling diminishes.[5]
Deregulation and disease
Though functionally adaptive in response to inflammatory stimuli, deregulation of NF-κB signaling has been exploited in various disease states.[5][6][7][8][9][10] Increased NF-κB activity as a result of constitutive IKK-mediated phosphorylation of IκBα has been observed in the development of atherosclerosis, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, and multiple sclerosis.[8][10] Specifically, constitutive NF-κB activity promotes continuous inflammatory signaling at the molecular level that translates to chronic inflammation phenotypically. Furthermore, the ability of NF-κB to simultaneously suppress apoptosis and promote continuous lymphocyte growth and proliferation explains its intimate connection with many types of cancer.[8][9]
Inhibition of IκB kinase (IKK) and IKK-related kinases, IKBKE (IKKε) and TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1), has been investigated as a therapeutic option for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and cancer.[11] The small-molecule inhibitor of IKK-β SAR113945, developed by Sanofi-Aventis, was evaluated in patients with knee osteoarthritis.[11][12]
^Mercurio F, Zhu H, Murray BW, Shevchenko A, Bennett BL, Li J, Young DB, Barbosa M, Mann M, Manning A, Rao A (1997). "IKK-1 and IKK-2: cytokine-activated IkappaB kinases essential for NF-kappaB activation". Science. 278 (5339): 860–6. Bibcode:1997Sci...278..860M. doi:10.1126/science.278.5339.860. PMID9346484.
^ abcMay MJ, D'acquisto F, Madge LA, Glöckner J, Pober JS, Ghosh S (September 2000). "Selective inhibition of NF-κB activation by a peptide that blocks the interaction of NEMO with the IκB kinase complex". Science. 289 (5484): 1550–54. Bibcode:2000Sci...289.1550M. doi:10.1126/science.289.5484.1550. PMID10968790.
