There is very little historical evidence of the use of Moksha from the distant past. One notable exception are inscriptions on so-called mordovka silver coins issued under Golden Horde rulers around the 14th century. The evidence of usage of the language (written with the Cyrillic script) comes from the 16th century.[7][8]
e-dialect: Proto-Moksha *ä is raised and merged with *e: śeĺme/sʲelʲme/ "eye", t́eĺme/tʲelʲme/ "broom", ĺej/lʲej/ "river".
i-dialect: Proto-Moksha *ä is raised to /e/, while Proto-Moksha *e is raised to /i/ and merged with *i: śiĺme/sʲilʲme/ "eye", t́eĺme/tʲelʲme/ "broom", ĺej/lʲej/ "river".
The standard literary Moksha language is based on the central group with ä (particularly the dialect of Krasnoslobodsk).
Sociolinguistics
Official status
A trilingual street sign in Saransk, Russia showing a street name in Russian, Moksha and Erzya
Moksha is one of the three official languages in Mordovia (the others being Erzya and Russian). The right to one's own language is guaranteed by the Constitution of the Mordovia Republic.[12] The republican law of Mordovia N 19-3 issued in 1998[13] declares Moksha one of its state languages and regulates its usage in various spheres: in state bodies such as Mordovian Parliament, official documents and seals, education, mass-media, information about goods, geographical names, road signs. However, the actual usage of Moksha and Erzya is rather limited.
Revitalisation efforts in Mordovia
Policies regarding the revival of the Moksha and Erzya languages in Mordovia started in the late 1990s, when the Language, and Education Laws were accepted. From the early 2000s on, the policy goal has been to create a unified Mordvin standard language despite differences between Erzya and Moksha.[14]
However, there have been no executive programmes for the implementation of the Language Law. Only about a third of Mordvin students had access to Mordvin language learning, the rest of whom are educated through Russian. Moksha has been used as the medium of instruction in some rural schools, but the number of students attending those schools is in rapid decline. In 2004, Mordovian authorities attempted to introduce compulsory study of the Mordvin/Moksha as one of the Republic's official languages, but this attempt failed in the aftermath of the 2007 education reform in Russia.
Phonology
Vowels
There are eight vowels with limited allophony and reduction of unstressed vowels.
Moksha has lost the original Uralic system of vowel harmony but maintains consonant-vowel harmony (palatalized consonants go with front vowels, non-palatalized with non-front).
There are some restrictions for the occurrence of vowels within a word:[15]
[ɨ] is an allophone of the phoneme /i/ after phonemically non-palatalized ("hard") consonants.[16]
/e/ does not occur after non-palatalized consonants, only after their palatalized ("soft") counterparts.
/a/ and /æ/ do not fully contrast after phonemically palatalized or non-palatalized consonants.[clarification needed]
Similar to /e/, /æ/ does not occur after non-palatalized consonants either, only after their palatalized counterparts.
After palatalized consonants, /æ/ occurs at the end of words, and when followed by another palatalized consonant.
/a/ after palatalized consonants occurs only before non-palatalized consonants, i.e. in the environment /CʲaC/.
The mid vowels' occurrence varies by the position within the word:
In native words, /e,o/ are rare in the second syllable, but common in borrowings from e.g. Russian.
/e,o/ are never found in the third and following syllables, where only /ə/ occurs.
/e/ at the end of words is only found in one-syllable words (e.g. ве/ve/ "night", пе/pe/ "end"). In longer words, word-final ⟨е⟩ always stands for /æ/ (e.g. веле/velʲæ/ "village", пильге/pilʲɡæ/ "foot, leg").[17]
Unstressed /ɑ/ and /æ/ are slightly reduced and shortened [ɑ̆] and [æ̆] respectively.
/ç/ is realized as a sibilant [ɕ] before the plural suffix /-t⁽ʲ⁾/ in south-east dialects.[18]
Palatalization, characteristic of Uralic languages, is contrastive only for dental consonants, which can be either "soft" or " hard". In Moksha Cyrillic alphabet the palatalization is designated like in Russian: either by a "soft sign" ⟨ь⟩ after a "soft" consonant or by writing "soft" vowels ⟨е, ё, и, ю, я⟩ after a "soft" consonant. In scientific transliteration the acute accent or apostrophe are used.
All other consonants have palatalized allophones before the front vowels/æ,i,e/ as well. The alveolo-palatal affricate/tɕ/ lacks non-palatalized counterpart, while postalveolar fricatives /ʂ~ʃ,ʐ~ʒ/ lack palatalized counterparts.
Devoicing
Unusually for a Uralic language, there is also a series of voiceless liquid consonants: /l̥,l̥ʲ,r̥,r̥ʲ/⟨ʀ, ʀ́, ʟ, ʟ́⟩. These have arisen from Proto-Mordvinic consonant clusters of a sonorant followed by a voiceless stop or affricate: *p,*t,*tʲ,*ts⁽ʲ⁾,*k.
Before certain inflectional and derivational endings, devoicing continues to exist as a phonological process in Moksha. This affects all other voiced consonants as well, including the nasal consonants and semivowels. No voiceless nasals are however found in Moksha: the devoicing of nasals produces voiceless oral stops. Altogether the following devoicing processes apply:
Plain
b
m
d
n
dʲ
nʲ
ɡ
l
lʲ
r
rʲ
v
z
zʲ
ʒ
j
Devoiced
p
t
tʲ
k
l̥
l̥ʲ
r̥
r̥ʲ
f
s
sʲ
ʃ
ç
For example, before the nominative plural /-t⁽ʲ⁾/:
кал/kal/ "fish" – калхт/kal̥t/ "fish"
лем/lʲem/ "name" – лепть/lʲeptʲ/ "names"
марь/marʲ/ "apple" – марьхть/mar̥ʲtʲ/ "apples"
Devoicing is, however, morphological rather than phonological, due to the loss of earlier voiceless stops from some consonant clusters, and due to the creation of new consonant clusters of voiced liquid + voiceless stop. Compare the following oppositions:
Non-high vowels are inherently longer than high vowels /i,u,ə/ and tend to draw the stress. If a high vowel appears in the first syllable which follow the syllable with non-high vowels (especially /a/ and /æ/), then the stress moves to that second or third syllable. If all the vowels of a word are either non-high or high, then the stress falls on the first syllable.[19]
Stressed vowels are longer than unstressed ones in the same position like in Russian. Unstressed vowels undergo some degree of vowel reduction.
Moksha has been written using Cyrillic with spelling rules identical to those of Russian since the 18th century. As a consequence of that, the vowels /e,ɛ,ə/ are not differentiated in a straightforward way.[20] However, they can be (more or less) predicted from Moksha phonotactics. The 1993 spelling reform defines that /ə/ in the first (either stressed or unstressed) syllable must be written with the "hard" sign ⟨ъ⟩ (e.g. мъ́рдсемс mə́rdśəms "to return", formerly мрдсемс). The version of the Moksha Cyrillic alphabet used in 1924-1927 had several extra letters, either digraphs or single letters with diacritics.[21] Although the use of the Latin script for Moksha was officially approved by the CIK VCKNA (General Executive Committee of the All Union New Alphabet Central Committee) on June 25, 1932, it was never implemented.
Moksha has 13 productivecases, many of which are primarily locative cases. Locative cases in Moksha express ideas that Indo-European languages such as English normally code by prepositions (in, at, towards, on, etc.).
However, also similarly to Indo-European prepositions, many of the uses of locative cases convey ideas other than simple motion or location. These include such expressions of time (e.g. onthe table/Monday, inEurope/a few hours, bythe river/the end of the summer, etc. ), purpose (toChina/keep things simple), or beneficiary relations. Some of the functions of Moksha cases are listed below:
Nominative, used for subjects, predicatives and for other grammatical functions.
There is controversy about the status of the three remaining cases in Moksha. Some researchers see the following three cases as borderline derivationalaffixes.
Comparative, used to express a likeness to something.
Caritive (or abessive), used to code the absence of something.
Causal, used to express that an entity is the cause of something else.
As in other Uralic languages, locative cases in Moksha can be classified according to three criteria: the spatial position (interior, surface, or exterior), the motion status (stationary or moving), and within the latter, the direction of the movement (approaching or departing). The table below shows these relationships schematically:
Before 1917 about 100 books and pamphlets mostly of religious character were published. More than 200 manuscripts including at least 50 wordlists were not printed. In the 19th century the Russian Orthodox Missionary Society in Kazan published Moksha primers and elementary textbooks of the Russian language for the Mokshas. Among them were two fascicles with samples of Moksha folk poetry. The great native scholar Makar Evsevyev collected Moksha folk songs published in one volume in 1897. Early in the Soviet period, social and political literature predominated among published works. Printing of Moksha language books was all done in Moscow until the establishment of the Mordvinian national district in 1928. Official conferences in 1928 and 1935 decreed the northwest dialect to be the basis for the literary language.
Use in education
The first few Moksha schools were established in the 19th century by Russian Christian missionaries. Since 1973, Moksha has been allowed to be used as the language of instruction for the first three grades of elementary school in rural areas, and as an elective subject.[23]
Classes in universities in Mordovia are in Russian, but the philological faculties of Mordovian State University and Mordovian State Pedagogical Institute offer a teacher course of Moksha.[24][25] Mordovian State University also offers a course in Moksha for other humanitarian and some technical specialities.[25] According to annual statistics from the Russian Ministry of Education for 2014-2015, there were 48 Moksha-medium schools (all in rural areas) where 644 students were taught, and 202 schools (152 in rural areas) where Moksha was studied as a subject by 15,783 students (5,412 in rural areas).[26] Since 2010, the study of Moksha in Mordovian schools is not compulsory, but can be chosen only by parents.[27]
^ abc(in Finnish) Bartens, Raija (1999). Mordvalaiskielten rakenne ja kehitys. Helsinki: Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seura. ISBN9525150224. OCLC41513429.
^Kreindler, Isabelle T. (January–March 1985). "The Mordvinians: A doomed Soviet nationality?". Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique. 26 (1): 43–62. doi:10.3406/cmr.1985.2030.
Raun, Alo (1988). "The Mordvin Language". In Sinor, Denis (ed.). The Uralic Languages: Description, History and Foreign Influences. BRILL. pp. 96–110. ISBN90-04-07741-3.
Kuznetsov, Stefan (1912), Russkaya istoricheskaya geografiya. Mordva (in Russian), Book on Demand Ltd, ISBN5518066848{{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Fedorov-Davydov G.A.; Tsirkin A.V. (1966), Novye dannye ob Ityakovskom gorodishche v Temnikovskom r-ne Mordovskoy ASSR [New Data on the Ityakovskoe Settlement in the Temnikov District of the Mordovian ASSR]. Issledovaniya po arkheologii i etnografii Mordovskoy ASSR: Trudy Mordovskogo IYaLIE [Studies in Archaeology and Ethnography of the Mordovian ASSR: Proceedings of the Mordovian Scientific-Research Institute of Language, Literature and History] Is. 30 (in Russian), Saransk{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Filjushkin, Alexander (2008). Ivan the Terrible: A Military History. Frontline Books. ISBN978-1848325043.
Minorsky, Vladimir; al-ʿĀlam, Ḥudūd (1952), Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam. The regions of the world: a Persian geography, 372 A.H./982 A.D para 52. The Alān Capital *Magas and the Mongol Campaign, Cambridge University Press
Fournet, Arnaud (2008), Le vocabulaire Mordve de Witsen. Une forme ancienne du dialecte Zubu-Mokša. Études finno-ougriennes, tome 40
Beekes, R.S.P.; Beekfirst2=L.V. (2010). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Vols. 1 & 2.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
In Russian
Аитов Г. Новый алфавит – великая революция на Востоке. К межрайонным и краевой конференции по вопросам нового алфавита. — Саратов: Нижневолжское краевое издательство, 1932.
Ермушкин Г. И. Ареальные исследования по восточным финно-угорским языкам = Areal research in East Fenno-Ugric languages. — М., 1984.
Поляков О. Е. Учимся говорить по-мокшански. — Саранск: Мордовское книжное издательство, 1995.
Феоктистов А. П. Мордовские языки // Языки народов СССР. — Т.3: Финно-угроские и самодийские языки — М., 1966. — С. 172–220.
Феоктистов А. П. Мордовские языки // Основы финно-угорского языкознания. — М., 1975. — С. 248–345.
Феоктистов А. П. Мордовские языки // Языки мира: уральские языки. — М., 1993. — С. 174–208.
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