日本-琉球语系

日本-琉球語系
日本語系
地理分佈日本,之前可能亦涵盖朝鮮半島
谱系学分类世界主要語系之一
原始語言原始日語
分支
ISO 639-5jpx
Glottologjapo1237[1]

日本語系之語言和方言

日本-琉球语系(英語:Japanese-Ryukyuan languages),或稱日本語系(英語:Japonic languages[2],是一個語系,包括在日本主要島嶼使用的日語和在琉球群島使用的琉球語。 該語族被語言學家普遍接受,在重建原始語言方面取得了重大進展。[3] 重建意味著日本的所有方言和所有琉球方言之間的分裂,可能發生在7世紀之前。 伊豆群島上使用的八丈語也包括在內,但其在該語系中的地位尚不清楚。

介绍

大多數學者認為,日本文化是在公元前一千年期間隨彌生文化朝鮮半島帶到日本列島的。 有一些零碎的證據表明,在公元早期的幾個世紀中,朝鮮半島中部和南部地區可能仍然使用半島日語

該語系現今有兩個明確的分支:日語和琉球語。[4] 大多學者認為,日本語是在公元前 700 至 300 年左右由彌生文化的水稻耕作人群自朝鮮半島帶至九州北部,並傳播到整個日本群島,取代了先前之語言。[5][6][7][8] 本州北部的地名以-betsu(來自阿伊努語“河流”)和-nai(來自阿伊努語“溪流”)結尾,證實了阿伊努語一度廣泛分佈。[9][10][7] 稍後,日本語也向南傳播到琉球群島[5] 零碎的地名證據表明,幾個世紀後,朝鮮半島中部和南部地區仍在使用現已消失的半島日語[11][12]

日語

日語是當前日本最主要的語言,約有1.26億位使用者。最古老的證明是上古日語,它是在 7 世紀和 8 世紀用漢字記錄的。[13] 它與現代日語的不同之處在於具有簡單的 (C)V 音節結構並避免元音序列。[14] 該語言還區分了八個元音(或雙元音),其中兩個分別對應於現代的 i、e 和 o。[14] 大多文本反映了 8 世紀日本首都奈良周圍地區的語言,但 300 多首詩是用上古日語東部方言寫成的。[15][13]

在 6 世紀佛教傳入後,該語言經歷了漢語詞彙的大量湧入,並在 8 世紀和 9 世紀隨著中國文化的大量輸入而達到頂峰。[14] 外來詞現在約佔全部辭彙的一半。[14] 還通過添加複合元音、音節末尾鼻音和雙輔音來影響語言的聲音系統,這些輔音變成了獨立的音拍[14] 反映在現代語言中的詞法和句法的大部分變化發生在日本中古時期晚期(13 至 16 世紀)。[13]

在本州、九州、四國和北海道使用的現代日本大陸方言通常分為以下幾類:[14]

  • 東部日語,包括大部分來自名古屋東部的方言,包括現代標準的東京方言。
  • 西部日語,包括名古屋以西的大部分方言,包括京都方言。
  • 九州方言,包括九州南部鹿兒島縣的鹿兒島方言/薩隅方言。

奈良和京都的早期首都位於西部地區,在 1603 年遷都江戶(今東京)後,他們的關西方言仍然保持著威望和影響。事實上,東京方言具有其他東部方言所沒有的幾個西部特徵。[14]

八丈島和包括青島在內的大東群島所使用的八丈島語具有很大的差異性和多樣性。 它混合了從東部上古日語繼承的保守特徵和現代日語的影響,因此很難分類。[14][16][17] 八丈語是一種瀕危語言,只有少數老年人使用。[6]

琉球語

琉球語最初和傳統上在整個琉球群島使用,琉球群島是日本南部九州島和臺灣島之間的島弧。 由於日語的主流傳播,它們中的大多數被認為是“絕對”或“極度瀕危”。[18]

由於上古日語呈現出一些琉球語所沒有的創新,這兩個分支被推定在 7 世紀之前就已分離。[19] 從九州到琉球的遷移可能發生得較晚,可能與 10 世紀和 11 世紀御城農業文化的迅速擴張同時發生。[19] 這樣可以解釋從早期中古日語借來的漢語詞彙在原始琉球語中的存在。[19] 人群在遷居琉球後,本土日語的影響有限,直到 1609 年薩摩藩征服琉球王國[20]

琉球變體在日本被認為是日語的方言,但與日語甚至彼此之間幾乎沒有可理解性。[14] 它們分為北部和南部組,對應於 250 公里寬的宮古海峽對其關係的物理劃分。[18]

北琉球語群在群島北部使用,包括主要的奄美沖繩群島。 它們形成單一的方言連續體,相距很遠的變體之間相互無法理解。[5] 主要變體從東北到西南依次為:[21]

對變體的分組沒有一致意見。 聯合國教科文組織世界瀕危語言地圖集採納的一項提案分為三個子組,中央的“國頭”分支包括從奄美南部到沖繩北部的變體,基於相似的元音系統和塞音減弱模式。[22] Pellard 建議基於共享創新的二元劃分,奄美組包括從喜界語到與論語的變體,沖繩組包括沖繩語及其西部較小島嶼的變體。[16]

南琉球語系位於南部的先島群島。 它們包括三個不同的方言連續體[5]

  • 宮古語在宮古群島使用,在伊良部和多良間有方言。
  • 八重山語在八重山群島(與那國島除外)使用,每個島上都有方言,但主要是石垣島、西表島和竹富島。
  • 在與那國島使用的與那國語在語音上截然不同,但在詞彙上更接近其他八重山變體。[14]

13 世紀,南琉球群島由北琉球群島的說日本語的人定居,沒有留下島上土著居民的語言痕跡。[20]

日語及其方言列表

  • 日語jpn
    • 八丈方言
    • 東日本方言
      • 北海道方言
      • 東北方言
        • 北奥羽方言
        • 南奥羽方言
      • 關東方言
        • 東關東方言
        • 西關東方言
        • 東京方言
      • 東海東山方言
        • 長野、山梨、靜岡方言
        • 越後方言
        • 岐阜、愛知方言
    • 西日本方言
      • 北陸方言
      • 近畿方言
      • 四國方言
      • 中國方言
        • 東山陽方言
        • 西中國方言
        • 東山陰方言
      • 雲伯方言
    • 九州方言
      • 豐日方言
      • 肥筑方言
      • 薩隅方言
    • 琉球日語

琉球語及其方言列表

人造語言

星界的纹章》中所用的人工语言亞維語亦被其作者歸入本語系內。

與其他語言和語系關係之理论

參見

參考文獻

  1. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (编). Japonic. Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. 2016. 
  2. ^ Robbeets, Martine. Austronesian influence and Transeurasian ancestry in Japanese: A case of farming/language dispersal. Language Dynamics and Change. 2017-01-01, 7 (2): 210–251 [2023-04-01]. ISSN 2210-5832. doi:10.1163/22105832-00702005可免费查阅. (原始内容存档于2021-05-15) (英语). 
  3. ^ Shimabukuro, Moriyo (2007), The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: a Reconstruction, London: Global Oriental, ISBN 978-1-901903-63-8.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Tranter, Nicholas (2012), "Introduction: typology and area in Japan and Korea", in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.), The Languages of Japan and Korea, Routledge, pp. 3–23, ISBN 978-0-415-46287-7.
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Serafim, Leon A. (2008), "The uses of Ryukyuan in understanding Japanese language history", in Frellesvig, Bjarne; Whitman, John (eds.), Proto-Japanese: Issues and Prospects, John Benjamins, pp. 79–99, ISBN 978-90-272-4809-1.
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 ——— (2017), "Origins of the Japanese Language", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.277, ISBN 978-0-19-938465-5.
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Hudson, Mark J. (1999), Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands, University of Hawai'i Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-2156-2.
  8. ^ Whitman, John (2011), "Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan", Rice, 4 (3–4): 149–158, doi:10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0.
  9. ^ Patrie, James (1982), The Genetic Relationship of the Ainu Language, Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, vol. 17, University of Hawai'i Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-0724-5, JSTOR 20006692.
  10. ^ Tamura, Suzuko (2000), The Ainu Language, ICHEL Linguistic Studies, vol. 2, Tokyo: Sanseido, ISBN 978-4-385-35976-2.
  11. ^ ——— (2013), "From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean", Korean Linguistics, 15 (2): 222–240, doi:10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov.
  12. ^ Sohn, Ho-Min (1999), The Korean Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-36123-1.
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010), A History of the Japanese Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-65320-6.
  14. ^ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990), The Languages of Japan, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-36918-3
  15. ^ Miyake, Marc Hideo (2003), Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction, London; New York: RoutledgeCurzon, ISBN 978-0-415-30575-4.
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 Pellard, Thomas (2015), "The linguistic archeology of the Ryukyu Islands", in Heinrich, Patrick; Miyara, Shinsho; Shimoji, Michinori (eds.), Handbook of the Ryukyuan languages: History, structure, and use, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 13–37, doi:10.1515/9781614511151.13, ISBN 978-1-61451-161-8, S2CID 54004881.
  17. ^ ——— (2018), "The comparative study of the Japonic languages", Approaches to endangered languages in Japan and Northeast Asia: Description, documentation and revitalization, Tachikawa, Japan: National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics.
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 ——— (2012), "Northern Ryukyuan", in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.), The Languages of Japan and Korea, Routledge, pp. 351–380, ISBN 978-0-415-46287-7.
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Pellard, Thomas (2015), "The linguistic archeology of the Ryukyu Islands", in Heinrich, Patrick; Miyara, Shinsho; Shimoji, Michinori (eds.), Handbook of the Ryukyuan languages: History, structure, and use, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 13–37, doi:10.1515/9781614511151.13, ISBN 978-1-61451-161-8, S2CID 54004881.
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 Shimoji, Michinori (2010), "Ryukyuan languages: an introduction", in Shimoji, Michinori; Pellard, Thomas (eds.), An Introduction to Ryukyuan Languages (PDF), Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, pp. 1–13, ISBN 978-4-86337-072-2.
  21. ^ Grimes, Barbara (2003), "Japanese – Language list", in Frawley, William (ed.), International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, vol. 2 (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, p. 335, ISBN 978-0-19-513977-8.
  22. ^ Heinrich, Patrick; Ishihara, Masahide (2017), "Ryukyuan languages in Japan", in Seals, Corinne A.; Shah, Sheena (eds.), Heritage Language Policies around the World, Routledge, pp. 165–184, ISBN 978-1-317-27404-9.
  23. ^ Shimabukuro, Moriyo. (2007). The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: a Reconstruction, p. 1.
  24. ^ Miyake, Marc Hideo. (2008). Old Japanese: a Phonetic Reconstruction. p.的 66.,第66頁,載於Google圖書
  25. ^ Heinrich, Patrick. "What leaves a mark should no longer stain: Progressive erasure and reversing language shift activities in the Ryukyu Islands,"页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) First International Small Island Cultures Conference at Kagoshima University, Centre for the Pacific Islands, February 7–10, 2005; citing Shiro Hattori. (1954) Gengo nendaigaku sunawachi goi tokeigaku no hoho ni tsuite ("Concerning the Method of Glottochronology and Lexicostatistics"), Gengo kenkyu (Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan), Vols. 26/27.
  26. ^ "While 'Altaic' is repeated in encyclopedias and handbooks most specialists in these languages no longer believe that the three traditional supposed Altaic groups, Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic, are related." Lyle Campbell & Mauricio J. Mixco, A Glossary of Historical Linguistics (2007, University of Utah Press), pg. 7.
  27. ^ "When cognates proved not to be valid, Altaic was abandoned, and the received view now is that Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic are unrelated." Johanna Nichols, Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time (1992, Chicago), pg. 4.
  28. ^ "Careful examination indicates that the established families, Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic, form a linguistic area (called Altaic)...Sufficient criteria have not been given that would justify talking of a genetic relationship here." R.M.W. Dixon, The Rise and Fall of Languages (1997, Cambridge), pg. 32.
  29. ^ "...[T]his selection of features does not provide good evidence for common descent" and "we can observe convergence rather than divergence between Turkic and Mongolic languages--a pattern than is easily explainable by borrowing and diffusion rather than common descent", Asya Pereltsvaig, Languages of the World, An Introduction (2012, Cambridge) has a good discussion of the Altaic hypothesis (pp. 211-216).
  30. ^ Georg et al. 1999:页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) 73–74
  31. ^ Stefan Georg, Peter A. Michalove, Alexis Manaster Ramer, and Paul J. Sidwell (1999): "Telling general linguists about Altaic页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)". Journal of Linguistics, volume 35, issue 1, pages 65–98.

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An old windmill situated in the grounds of The Windmill pub Meir Heath is a village just to the south of Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire situated on a hilltop between Meir and Rough Close, 2+1⁄2 miles from Barlaston and only 5 miles from Stone. The population as taken at the 2011 census can be found under the ward of Fulford, Stoke-on-Trent. It is located in the Borough of Stafford. Meir Heath is said to be the highest conurbation in Staffordshire, due to its altitude it often experience...

衆議院の選挙区としての東京15区については「東京都第15区」をご覧ください。 この記事は検証可能な参考文献や出典が全く示されていないか、不十分です。出典を追加して記事の信頼性向上にご協力ください。(このテンプレートの使い方)出典検索?: 東京15区 – ニュース · 書籍 · スカラー · CiNii · J-STAGE · NDL · dlib.jp · ジャパ...

 

Часть серии статей о ХолокостеИдеология и политика Расовая гигиена Расовый антисемитизм Нацистская расовая политика Нюрнбергские расовые законы Шоа Лагеря смерти Белжец Дахау Майданек Малый Тростенец Маутхаузен Освенцим Собибор Треблинка Хелмно Юнгфернхоф Ясеновац...

 

Permanent residents of Hong Kong This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2023) For the local Cantonese dialect, see Hong Kong Cantonese. Ethnic group Hongkongers香港人Total populationc. 7.413 million[1]Regions with significant populations Hong Kong7,413,070[2] Mainland China472,900[3] United States330,000[needs update][4] Canada213,855[needs...

Norwegian footballer and manager (born 1965) Kåre Ingebrigtsen Ingebrigtsen managing Rosenborg in 2017Personal informationFull name Kåre Hedley IngebrigtsenDate of birth (1965-11-11) 11 November 1965 (age 58)Place of birth Trondheim, NorwayPosition(s) MidfielderTeam informationCurrent team Ranheim(manager)Youth career–1984 Utleira1984 MalvikSenior career*Years Team Apps (Gls)1985–1992 Rosenborg 141 (16)1987 → Frigg (loan) 1992–1994 Manchester City 15 (3)1993 → Rosenborg (loan...

 

Former municipality in Finnmark, Norway Former municipality in Finnmark, NorwayNord-Varanger Municipality Nord-Varanger herredFormer municipalityNordvaranger herred  (historic name)Finnmark within NorwayNord-Varanger within FinnmarkCoordinates: 70°04′49″N 29°43′53″E / 70.08028°N 29.73139°E / 70.08028; 29.73139CountryNorwayCountyFinnmarkDistrictØst-FinnmarkEstablished1 Jan 1894 • Preceded byVadsø MunicipalityDisestablished1 Jan 1964&#...