火星上的混沌地形(Chaos terrain on Mars)极为独特,地球上没有与之比似的地貌。混沌地形通常由方圆数几十公里,高达百米或以上的不规则大地块群组成,倾斜的平顶地块形成了数百米深的洼地[1]。一处混沌区域可通过被谷道交错切割的桌山、地垛和山丘来识别,而一些谷地似乎带有图案地面[2][3][4]。这些混沌区的部分区域还没有完全崩塌,它们仍形成了巨大的台地,因此,可能还贮藏着水冰[5]。混沌地区形成于很久以前,通过陨石坑计数(任何给定区域内的陨坑越多意味着地表越古老)以及研究这些谷地与其他地质特征的关系,科学家得出结论,这些通道形成于20亿至38亿年前[6]。
^Head, J. and L. Wilson. 2002. Mars: A review and synthesis of general environments and geological settings of Magma-H2O interactions. In: SmeilieJ. And M. Chapman. (EDS.). Volcanic-ice Interactions on Earth and Mars. Geological Society. London
^Cabrol, Nathalie A.; et al. A model of outflow generation by hydrothermal underpressure drainage in volcano-tectonic environment. Shalbatana Vallis (Mars). Icarus. 1997, 125 (2): 455–464. Bibcode:1997Icar..125..455C. doi:10.1006/icar.1996.5625.
^Komatsu, G. et al. 2000. A chaotic terrain formation hypothesis: Explosive outgas and outflow by dissociation of clathrate on Mars. Lunar Planet. Sci. XXXI. 1434.
^Rodriguez, J. A. P.; Kargel, Jeffrey; Crown, David A.; Bleamaster, Leslie F.; Tanaka, Kenneth L.; Baker, Victor; Miyamoto, Hideaki; Dohm, James M.; Sasaki, Sho; Komatsu, Goro. Headward growth of chasmata by volatile outbursts, collapse, and drainage: Evidence from Ganges chaos, Mars. Geophysical Research Letters. 2006, 33 (18): 18203. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..3318203R. doi:10.1029/2006GL026275.
^ 22.022.1Zegers, T.; et al. Melt and collapse of buried water ice: An alternative hypothesis for the formation of chaotic terrains on Mars. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 2010, 297 (3–4): 496–504. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.297..496Z. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.049.
^Head, J.; Neukum, G.; Jaumann, R.; Hiesinger, H.; Hauber, E.; Carr, M.; Masson, P.; Foing, B.; Hoffmann, H.; et al. Tropical to mid-latitude snow and ice accumulation, flow and glaciation on Mars. Nature. 2005, 434 (7031): 346–350. Bibcode:2005Natur.434..346H. PMID 15772652. S2CID 4363630. doi:10.1038/nature03359.
^Head, J.; et al. Extensive valley glacier deposits in the northern mid-latitudes of Mars: Evidence for the late Amazonian obliquity-driven climate change. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2006, 241 (3–4): 663–671. Bibcode:2006E&PSL.241..663H. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.11.016.
^Madeleine, J. et al. 2007. Mars: A proposed climatic scenario for northern mid-latitude glaciation. Lunar Planet. Sci. 38. Abstract 1778.
^Mischna, M.; Richardson, Mark I.; Wilson, R. John; McCleese, Daniel J. On the orbital forcing of martian water and CO2 cycles: A general circulation model study with simplified volatile schemes. J. Geophys. Res. 2003, 108 (E6): 5062. Bibcode:2003JGRE..108.5062M. doi:10.1029/2003JE002051.
^Rodríguez, Jose Alexis Palmero. Control of impact crater fracture systems on subsurface hydrology, ground subsidence, and collapse, Mars. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2005, 110. Bibcode:2005JGRE..11006003R. doi:10.1029/2004JE002365.
^Pedersen, G., J. Head. 2010. Chaos formation by sublimation of volatile-rich substrate: Evidence from Galaxias Chaos, Mars. Icarus: 211, 316–329.
^Kreslavsky, Mikhail A.; Head, James W. Fate of outflow channel effluents in the northern lowlands of Mars: The Vastitas Borealis Formation as a sublimation residue from frozen ponded bodies of water. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2002, 107 (E12): 4–1–4–25. Bibcode:2002JGRE..107.5121K. doi:10.1029/2001JE001831.