玛雅文明最早形成于约西元前2000年之前,在那时,农业得到最初发展,出现了早期聚落。根据中部美洲断代史的划分,玛雅文明在前古典期(约西元前2000年至公元250年)发展出最早的复杂社会,出现定居的农业生活,玉米、豆类、南瓜和辣椒是其主要作物。前750年前后,出现早期的城市,至前500年已经建成祭祀建筑,建起外墙经精心粉刷的大型神庙;前3世纪出现象形文字系统。到前古典期晚期,佩滕盆地和危地马拉高地上已建立起多个大型城市。玛雅文明在古典期(约250年至900年)步入繁盛,各地较大规模的居民点数以百计,部分城市形成城邦,其间以复杂的贸易网相联系,北部低地的蒂卡尔和卡拉克穆尔城邦逐渐崛起。不过,分布于今墨西哥中部的特奥蒂瓦坎文明也在此时期对玛雅城邦展开侵略。9世纪,玛雅文明的中部地区突然出现集体性的政治崩溃,是为古典期衰落,引发连年内乱,大量城市陷入废弃,人口开始北移。到后古典期(1000年至1520年),来自墨西哥腹地的托尔特克人征服了玛雅地区北部的尤卡坦半岛,建立起强大的奇琴伊察城邦,后又有好战的玛雅潘和基切王国(英语:K'iche' kingdom of Q'umarkaj)建立霸权统治,好战之风导致战乱频仍,玛雅文化趋于衰败。
后古典期玛雅文明和此前古典期相比,城邦分布的变化很大,这也是后古典期的重要特点之一[87]。危地马拉谷地曾一度强盛的卡米纳尔胡尤销声匿迹,其近两千年历史在后古典期终结[88]。在高地和太平洋沿岸地区,一些历史悠久的城市居于暴露地带,因战乱而发生迁移。新的城址大多处于山沟环绕的山顶位置,四周建有沟渠和城墙,构成易守难攻的防御配置[88]。库马尔卡赫(英语:Q'umarkaj)是后古典期危地马拉高地的重要城邦之一,是好战的基切王国(英语:K'iche' kingdom of Q'umarkaj)的都城[87]。后古典时期的玛雅城邦,北起尤卡坦半岛,南至危地马拉高地,通常由一组精英施行集体统治,但实际上在这一集体中常常会有地位最高的统治角色,其他成员仅担当顾问[89]。
现今对于玛雅商人知之甚少。在陶器上,出现过贵族穿着的玛雅商人。因此可以知道,玛雅商人中至少有一部分人是贵族成员。在接触期,已知玛雅贵族会参与长途贸易活动[236]。大部分商人出自中产阶级,但一般仅参与小规模的短途贸易,而涉及大量奢侈品的长途贸易则很有可能是贵族商人的专属活动[237]。在玛雅人的观念中,涉足他乡从事贸易,就如同穿越冥界一般危险。玛雅神话中,商人的保护神是两个冥界神(英语:Maya death gods),其艺术形象常身背背包。商人出差贸易时,会将自己的皮肤涂成黑色,如同冥界神的肤色,并且全副武装[232]。
在众多玛雅艺术品中,陶器(英语:Maya ceramics)是相对保存最为完善的。玛雅人不使用陶钧(英语:potter's wheel),主要通过盘条法(英语:Coiling (pottery))制作陶器。玛雅人并不为陶器上釉,但玛雅陶器经过后期的打磨仍然具有精美的外观。玛雅陶器一般涂有混入矿石和彩色粘土的化妆土。玛雅陶器的烧制方法仍然不明[273]。在尤卡坦半岛北部的哈伊纳岛(英语:Jaina Island)遗址,考古学家自当地古典期晚期的陵墓中发掘出大量精美的陶器,高度从10厘米到25厘米不等,皆为手工成型,且带有精致的外部细节[274]。在古典期晚期的遗址莫图尔-德圣何塞(英语:Motul de San José),考古学家发现了一类风格独特的陶器,包括粉饰精美的圆盘和柱体容器,称为伊克风格(Ik-style)。这种风格具有独特的外部图画,例如粉色或淡红色的象形文字,以及头戴面具的舞者形象等。伊克风格的陶器图画对于诸多现实场景有着极为生动的描绘,如佩滕地区王室贵族的外交会见、宴会、放血仪式场面,以及战争和献祭仪式的场面,这是伊克风格最为鲜明的特征[275]。
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延伸閲讀
Braswell, Geoffrey E. The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-292-70914-0. OCLC 49936017.
Braswell, Geoffrey E. The Maya and their Central American Neighbors: Settlement patterns, architecture, hieroglyphic texts, and ceramics. Oxford, UK and New York: Routledge. 2014. ISBN 978-0-415-74487-4. OCLC 857897947.
Garber, James. The Ancient Maya of the Belize Valley: Half a Century of Archaeological Research. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. 2004. ISBN 978-0-8130-2685-5. OCLC 52334723.
Herring, Adam. Art and Writing in the Maya cities, AD 600–800: A Poetics of Line. Cambridge, England; New York: Cambridge University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-84246-4. OCLC 56834579.
McKillop, Heather Irene. In Search of Maya Sea Traders. College Station, Texas: Texas A & M University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-1-58544-389-5. OCLC 55145823.
Tiesler, Vera & Andrea Cucina. Janaab' Pakal of Palenque: Reconstructing the Life and Death of a Maya Ruler. Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press. 2006. ISBN 978-0-8165-2510-2. OCLC 62593473.
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Basic outcome and Atomic event redirect here. For atomic events in computer science, see linearizability. Part of a series on statisticsProbability theory Probability Axioms Determinism System Indeterminism Randomness Probability space Sample space Event Collectively exhaustive events Elementary event Mutual exclusivity Outcome Singleton Experiment Bernoulli trial Probability distribution Bernoulli distribution Binomial distribution Exponential distribution Normal distribution Pareto distribu...
American philosopher in Left-Kantian tradition Christine Marion KorsgaardKorsgaard in 2010BornApril 9, 1952 (1952-04-09) (age 72)Chicago, Illinois, United StatesAlma materHarvard UniversityUniversity of IllinoisEra20th-century philosophyRegionWestern philosophySchoolAnalyticInstitutionsHarvard UniversityMain interestsMoral philosophy · Kantianism Christine Marion Korsgaard, FBA (/ˈkɔːrzɡɑːrd/; born April 9, 1952) is an American philosopher who is the Arthur...
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For related races, see 2018 United States Senate elections. For the other Senate election in Mississippi held in parallel, see 2018 United States Senate special election in Mississippi. 2018 United States Senate election in Mississippi ← 2012 November 6, 2018 2024 → Turnout49.7% Nominee Roger Wicker David Baria Party Republican Democratic Popular vote 547,619 369,567 Percentage 58.49% 39.47% County results Congressional district results Precinct resultsWicke...