Tunisiya
تونس (ar) Tunisia (ms) Tunisia (en) الجمهورية التونسية (ar) Republic of Tunisia (en) Republik Tunisia (ms)
Flag of Tunisia (en) Coat of arms of Tunisia (en)
Take	Humat Al Hima (en) (12 Nuwamba, 1987)
Kirari	«حرية، كرامة، عدالة، نظام» «Rhyddid, urddas, cyfiawnder, a threfn»
Suna saboda	Tunis
Wuri
34°N 10°E / 34°N 10°E / 34; 10
Babban birni	Tunis
Yawan mutane
Faɗi	11,565,204 (2018)
• Yawan mutane	70.69 mazaunan/km²
Harshen gwamnati	Larabci
Labarin ƙasa
Bangare na	Arewacin Afirka da European Union tax haven blacklist (en)
Yawan fili	163,610 km²
Wuri a ina ko kusa da wace teku	Bahar Rum
Wuri mafi tsayi	Jebel ech Chambi (en) (1,544 m)
Wuri mafi ƙasa	Shatt al Gharsah (en) (−17 m)
Sun raba iyaka da	Libya Aljeriya
Bayanan tarihi
Mabiyi	French protectorate of Tunisia (en)
Ƙirƙira	20 ga Maris, 1956
Muhimman sha'ani	Tunisian independence (en)
Ranakun huta	International Workers' Day (en) (May 1 (en) ) New Year's Day (en) (January 1 (en) ) Sallar Idi Karama (1 Shawwal (en) ) Sallar Idi Babba (10 Dhu al-Hijjah (en) ) Islamic New Year (en) (1 Muharram (en) ) Maulidi (12 Rabi' al-awwal (en) ) National Women's Day (en) (August 13 (en) ) Evacuation Day (en) (October 15 (en) ) Events of 9 April 1938 (en) Tunisian revolution (en) Israi da Mi'raji (27 Rajab (en) )
Tsarin Siyasa
Tsarin gwamnati	parliamentary republic (en) da semi-presidential system (en)
Majalisar zartarwa	Government of Tunisia (en)
Gangar majalisa	Assembly of the Representatives of the People (en)
• President of Tunisia (en)	Kais Saied (en) (23 Oktoba 2019)
• Prime Minister of Tunisia (en)	Ahmed Hachani (en) (1 ga Augusta, 2023)
Ikonomi
Nominal GDP (en)	46,687,298,709 $ (2021)
Kuɗi	Dinar na Tunisiya
Bayanan Tuntuɓa
Kasancewa a yanki na lokaci	UTC+01:00 Central European Time (en) UTC+02:00 (en) Africa/Tunis (en)
Suna ta yanar gizo	.tn (mul)
Tsarin lamba ta kiran tarho	+216
Lambar taimakon gaggawa	190 (en) , 198 (en) , 193 (en) da 197 (en)
Lambar ƙasa	TN

Tunisiya ,(Larabci:تونت، Abzinanci ⵜⵓⵏⴻⵙ; Faransanci: Tunisie). ^[1]Jamhuriyar Tunisiya (Turanci Republic of Tunisia (Larabci : الجمهورية التونسية‎ al-Jumhūrīya at-Tūnisīya) kasa ce mai cin yancin gashin kanta a yankin arewacin Afrika, mai ,fadin kasa sukwaya mita dubu dari da sittin da biyar 165,000 (sukwaya mil dubu sittin da hudu 64,000).Tayi iyaka da kasar Libya daga kudu maso gabas, sai Aljeriya daga yamma da kudu maso gabas, sai kuma da kogin miditaraniya daga Arewa da kuma gabas. Yana fasalta wuraren binciken kayan tarihi na Carthage tun daga karni na tara 9 BC, da kuma Babban,Masallacin Kairouan. An san shi da tsohon gine-ginensa, souks, da bakin teku masu shuɗi, [Tunusia]] ta mamaye fili da yakai kilo mita dubu dari da sittin da ukku da dari shida da goma 163,610 km2 (63,170 sq mi), kuma yana da yawan jama'a miliyan goma sha biyu da digo daya 12.1. Ya ƙunshi ƙarshen tsaunin Atlas da arewacin hamadar Sahara; mafi yawan sauran yankinta ƙasar noma ce. Tsayinta ya kai na kilomita dubu daya da dari ukku 1,300 (dari takwas da goma 810 mi) na bakin teku ya haɗa da haɗin gwiwar Afirka na yamma da gabas na Basin Mediterranean.Tunisiya gida ce ga yankin arewacin Afirka, Cape Angela. Tana kan gabar tekun arewa maso gabas, Tunis shine babban birni kuma birni mafi girma a ƙasar. Sunan Tunisiya bayan Tunis.

Tun daga farkon zamanin da, ƴan asalin ƙasar Berber ne ke zaune a Tunisiya. Phoeniciyawa, jama'ar Yahudawa, sun fara isowa a karni na goma sha biyu 12 BC, suna zaune a bakin teku tare da kafa ƙauyuka da yawa, waɗanda Carthage ya kasance mafi ƙarfi a ƙarni na 7 BC. Zuriyar mazauna Phoenician sun zama sanannun mutanen Punic. Tsohuwar Carthage babbar daula ce ta 'yan kasuwa kuma abokin hamayyar soji ne ga Jamhuriyar Rum har zuwa dari da arba'in da shida 146 BC lokacin da Romawa suka mamaye Tunisiya tsawon shekaru 800 masu zuwa. Romawa sun gabatar da Kiristanci  kuma sun bar gadon gine-gine kamar Amphitheater na El Jem. A karni na bakwai 7 AD, Musulman Larabawa sun mamaye duk ƙasar Tunisiya (a ƙarshe sun yi nasara a cikin dari shida da casa'in da bakwai 697 bayan yunƙuri da yawa da suka fara a dari shida da arba'in da bakwai 647) kuma suka zauna tare da kabilunsu da iyalansu, suna kawo al'adun Islama da na Larabawa ga mazauna gida. Daga baya babban ƙaura Larabawa  na Banu Hilal da Banu Sulaym a cikin 11th-Karni na goma sha biyu 12 sun hanzarta wannan tsari. A kusan karni na goma sha biyar 15, yankin Tunisiya na zamani ya riga ya zama kusan Larabawa, wanda ya kafa Larabawa a matsayin mafi yawan al'umma. ^[2] Sannan, a cikin shekarar alif ɗari biyar da arba'in da shida 1546, Daular Usmaniyya ta kafa iko a wurin,tana da iko sama da shekaru har guda dari ukku 300, har zuwa shekarar alif ɗari takwas da tamanin da ɗaya 1881, lokacin da Faransa ta mamaye Tunisia. A cikin shekarar alif dubu daya da dari tara da hamsin da shida 1956, Tunisiya ta sami 'yencin kai  a matsayin Jamhuriyar Tunisiya a ƙarƙashin jagorancin Habib Bourguiba  tare da taimakon masu fafutuka irin su Chedly Kallala, Farhat Hached, da Salah Ben Youssef. A yau, al'adun Tunisiya da asalinsu sun samo asali ne daga wannan haɗin kai na tsawon ƙarni na al'adu da ƙabilanci.

A cikin shekara ta dubu biyu da goma sha ɗaya 2011, juyin juya halin Tunisiya, wanda ya samo asali daga rashin gamsuwa da rashin 'yanci da dimokuradiyya a karkashin mulkin shugaba Zine El Abidine Ben Ali na shekaru ashirin da hudu 24, ya tuntsure gwamnatinsa tare da haifar da babban yunkuri na Larabawa a fadin yankin. An gudanar da zaben 'yan majalisu na jam'iyyu da yawa kyauta jim kadan bayan haka; kasar ta sake zaben majalisar dokoki a ranar ashirin da shida 26 ga watan Oktoba na shekara ta dubu biyu da goma sha huɗu 2014,^[3] da kuma shugaban kasa a ranar ashirin da ukku 23 ga watan Nuwamba na shekara ta dubu biyu da goma sha huɗu 2014.^[4] Daga shekarar alif dubu biyu da goma sha hudu 2014 zuwa shekarar alif dubu biyu da ashirin 2020, an dauke ta a matsayin kasa daya tilo ta dimokuradiyya a cikin kasashen Larabawa, bisa ga tsarin dimokuraɗiyya (The Economist). ^[5]Bayan koma bayan dimokuraɗiyya, ƙasar Tunisiya tana da tsarin mulkin gamayya. ^[6] Tana ɗaya daga cikin ƙananan ƙasashe a Afirka da ke da matsayi mafi girma a ƙimar ci gaban ɗan adam, tare da ɗaya daga cikin mafi girman yawan kuɗin shiga kowane mutum a nahiyar, wanda ke matsayi na dari da ashirin da tara 129 a GDP na kowane mutum.

Harshen gwamnati na Tunisiya  shine Larabci na Zamani. Mafi yawan al'ummar Tunisia Larabawa ne kuma musulmi. Larabci shine yare mafi yawa a ƙasar Tunisiya wanda ake magana da shi kuma Faransanci kuma yana aiki azaman yaren gudanarwa da ilimi a wasu mahallin, amma bashi da matsayi na hukuma.

Tunisiya ta shiga cikin kasashen duniya. Wani memba ne na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, [Internationaleale]] De La Francophonie, theabungiyar Larabawa, cikin Kotun Afirka, kotun da ba a daidaita da ba a hada da laifofin kasa da kasa ba, Rukuni na saba'in da bakwai 77,da sauransu. Tana kula da kusancin tattalin arziki da siyasa tare da wasu ƙasashen Turai, musamman da Faransa,^[7] da [✓Italiya]], ^[8][9] saboda kusancinsu na yanki. Ƙasar Tunisiya kuma tana da yarjejeniyar haɗin gwiwa tare da Tarayyar Turai kuma ta sami matsayin babbar ƙawancen da ba ta NATO ba ta Amurka.

Tunis § Etymology

Kalmar Tunisiya ta fito ne daga Tunis; cibiyar tsakiyar birni kuma babban birnin Tunisiya na zamani.^[10] Sigar sunan yanzu, tare da karin harufa guda biyu -ia, ya samo asali ne daga Tunisie a yaren Faransa, gabaɗaya yana da alaƙa da tushen Berber ⵜⵏⵙ, da aka fassara tns, wanda ke nufin "kwance" ko "zama"^[11] Wani lokaci kuma ana danganta shi da, Allolin Carthage Tanith (ko Tunit), ^[12]da tsohon birnin Tynes.^[13][14]

An karɓo asalin Tunnisie a yaren Faransanci a cikin wasu harsunan Turai tare da ƴan gyare-gyare, yana gabatar da suna na musamman don zayyana ƙasar. Wasu harsuna sun bar sunan ba a taɓa su ba, kamar Russian Туни́с (Tunis) da Spanish Túnez. A wannan yanayin, ana amfani da suna iri ɗaya ga ƙasa da birni, kamar yadda yake da  تونس Larabci, kuma ta mahallin ne kawai za a iya nuna bambanci.^[10]

Babban labarin: Tunusia

Manyan labarai: Al'adun Capsian da Tsohon Carthage

Hanyoyin noma sun isa rafin Nilu daga yankin Crescent mai albarka kimanin shekara ta dubu biyar 5000 BC, kuma suka bazu zuwa Maghreb da kusan dubu hudu 4000 BC. Al'ummomin noma a filayen gabar teku masu danshi na tsakiyar Tunisiya a lokacin sun kasance kakannin kabilun Berber na yau.

An yi imani a zamanin da cewa mutanen Gaetulians da Libiyawa ne I ke zaune a Afirka, mutanen makiyaya ne. A cewar masanin tarihin Roma Sallust, gunkin Hercules ya mutu a Spain kuma an bar sojojinsa na gabas da yawa don su zaunar da ƙasar, wasu sun yi ƙaura zuwa Afirka. Farisawa sun tafi yamma suka yi aure da Gaetulians suka zama Numidiyawa. Mediyawa sun zauna kuma an san su da Mauri, daga baya Moors.^[15]

Numidians da Moors sun kasance daga tseren da Berbers suka fito.^[16][17][18] Ma'anar Numidian da aka fassara shi ne Nomad kuma hakika mutanen sun kasance 'yan ƙabilar makiyaya har zuwa lokacin mulkin Masinissa  na kabilar Massyli.A farkon tarihi, ƙabilun Berber ne ke zaune a Tunisiya.  Phoeniciyan  ne suka daidaita iyakarta tun farkon ƙarni na goma sha biyu 12 BC (Bizerte, Utica). An kafa birnin Carthage a ƙarni na tara 9 BC ta hanyar Phoeniciyawa. Tatsuniyar ta ce Dido daga Taya, yanzu a Lebanon ta zamani, ya kafa birnin a shekara ta dari takwas da goma sha hudu 814 BC, kamar yadda marubucin Timaeus na Tauromenium ya sake maimaitawa. Mazaunan Carthage sun kawo al'adunsu da addininsu daga Finisiya, a yanzu Labanon da yankunan da ke kusa.^[19]

Biyo Bayan Yaƙin Carthage Bayan jerin yaƙe-yaƙe da biranen Sicily na Girka a ƙarni na biyar 5 BC, Carthage ya hau kan mulki kuma daga ƙarshe ya zama wayewa mafi girma a Yammacin Mediterranean. Mutanen Carthage sun bauta wa gunkin Gabas ta Tsakiya da suka haɗa da Baal da Tanit. Alamar Tanit, siffa mai sauƙi na mace mai tsayin daka da doguwar riga, sanannen gunki ne da aka samu a tsoffin wuraren. Wadanda suka kafa Carthage kuma sun kafa Tophet, wanda aka canza a zamanin Roman.Mamaya na Carthaginian na Italiya karkashin jagorancin Hannibal a lokacin Yaƙin Punic na Biyu, ɗaya daga cikin jerin yaƙe-yaƙe da Roma, ya kusan gurgunta haɓakar ikon Romawa. Daga ƙarshen Yaƙin Punic na biyu a cikin dari biyu da biyu 202 BC, Carthage ya yi aiki a matsayin abokin ciniki na Jamhuriyar Roman har tsawon shekaru hamsin 50.^[20]

wanda ya fara a cikin shekarar alif dari daya da arba'in da tara 149 BC lokacin Yaƙin Punic na Uku, Roma ta ci Carthage a cikin shekarar alif dari da arba'in da shida 146 BC. Bayan cin nasararsa, Romawa sun sake suna Carthage zuwa Afirka, tare da haɗa ta a matsayin lardi.A zamanin Romawa, yankin da ake kira Tunisiya ya sami babban ci gaba. Tattalin arzikin, ƙasar galibi a lokacin daular, ya bunkasa: wadatar yankin ya dogara ne akan noma. Wanda ake kira Granary of the Empire, yankin ainihin Tunisiya da Tripolitania, bisa ƙiyasin ɗaya, ana samar da ton miliyan ɗaya 1.0 na hatsi a kowace shekara, kashi ɗaya cikin huɗu na abin da ake fitarwa zuwa Masarautar. Ƙarin amfanin gona wanda suke nomawa sun haɗa da wake, ɓaure, inabi, da sauran 'ya'yan itatuwa.

A karni na biyu 2, man zaitun ya yi kishiyantar hatsi a matsayin abin fitarwa. Baya ga noma da kuma jigilar namun daji daga tsaunukan yamma, manyan abubuwan da ake samarwa da fitar da su sun hada da masaku, marmara, giya, katako, dabbobi, tukwane irin su Red Slip na Afirka, da ulu.

Har ma an sami ɗimbin kayan aikin mosaics da tukwane, waɗanda aka fi fitar da su zuwa Italiya, a tsakiyar yankin El Djem (inda akwai babban wasan amphitheater na biyu a cikin Daular Roma).

Bishop na Berber Donatus Magnus shine wanda ya kafa ƙungiyar Kirista da aka sani da Donatists. ^[21]A cikin ƙarni na biyar 5 da na 6 (daga shekara ta dari hudu da talatin 430 zuwa dari biyar da talatin da ukku 533 AD), 'yan Vandal na ƙasar Jamus sun mamaye daular da ke arewa maso yammacin Afirka wanda ya haɗa da Tripoli na yanzu. ^[22] An sami nasarar mamaye yankin cikin sauƙi a cikin shekara ta dari biyar da talatin da ukku 533 zuwa shekarar alif dari biyar da talatin da hudu 534 AD, a lokacin mulkin Sarkin sarakuna Justinian I, ta hanyar  Romawa ta Gabas karkashin jagorancin Janar Belisarius, wanda ya share shekaru dari daya da sittin da biyar 165 na mulkin Byzantine rul.

Tarihi ya nuna cewar asalin kasar Tunisiya ta samo asaline daga Abzinawa wadanda suka kafu a hankali da kadan kadan a tsakankanin wadansu kananan kauyuka da kuma wadansu kananan mabanbantan kabilu. Mafi ya yawancin su sun gina kananan garuruwa domin gudanar da kasuwanci da fatake masu wucewa. A haka ne kauyukan abzinawan yaci gaba da karuwa sakamakon wadansu fataken na yada zango karshema sai suyi zaman su anan. Gabanin haihuwar Annabi Isah a tsakanin ƙarnuka na 8 zuwa na goma birane suka kafu a kasar ta Tunisiya.

Kasar Tunisiya ta fada hannun dauloli daban daban kamar daular Rumawa tsawon shekaru aru-aru kafin samun yancinta.

A karni na Bakwai ne Larabawa suka ci kasar da yaki tare da gabatar Addinin Musulunci a kasar tare da gina wani birni wanda suke kira da Kairoun. Kairoun ne birni na larabawa musulmai na farko a kasar Tunisiya. Masarautun Musulunci da dama sun shugabanci Tunisiya. Daya daga cikin fitacciyar masarautar musulmai wadda ta jagoranci Tunisiya itace Masarautar Zirids. Zirids tana karkashin ikon masarautar Fatimiyya ce ta birnin Misra dake kasar Masar.

A haka kasar tunisiya taci gaba da zama karkashin daulolin musulunci har ya zuwa lokacin da turawan mulkin mallaka na kasar Faransa suka shiga kasar a ranar goma sha biyu 12 ga watan Mayu, na alif dubu daya da dari takwas da tamanin da daya1881.

Babban labarin: Ilimi a Tunisiya

Kwalejin Sadiki da ke Tunisiya Cibiyar Kididdiga ta UNESCO

Adadin yawan karatun manya a shekarar alif dubu biyu da takwas 2008 ya kai kashi saba'in da takwas 78% kuma wannan adadin ya haura zuwa kashi casa'in da bakwai da digo ukku 97.3 idan aka yi la'akari da mutane kawai daga shekaru goma sha biyar 15 zuwa ashirin da hudu 24.  % na GNP. Ilimi na asali ga yara masu shekaru shida 6 zuwa goma sha shida 16 ya zama tilas tun daga shekarar alif dubu daya da dari tara da casa'in da daya 1991. Tunusiya tana matsayi na goma sha bakwai 17 a cikin rukunin "[Ingantacciyar tsarin ilimi [mafi girma]" da ashirin da daya 21st a rukunin "ingancin ilimin firamare" a cikin Duniya Rahoton Gasa dubu biyu da takwas zuwa dubu biyu da tara 2008-09, wanda Cibiyar Tattalin Arzikin Duniya ta fitar. Yayin da yara gabaɗaya ke samun Larabcin Tunusia a gida, idan sun shiga makaranta suna da shekara shida, ana koya musu karatu da rubutu cikin Standard Larabci. Tun suna shekara takwas 8, ana koyar da su Faransanci yayin da ake shigar da Ingilishi suna da shekaru goma sha daya 11.

Shekaru huɗu na karatun sakandare a buɗe suke ga duk masu riƙe Diplôme de Fin d'Études de l'Enseignement de Base inda ɗalibai ke mai da hankali kan shiga matakin jami'a ko shiga aikin aiki bayan kammalawa. Enseignement secondaire ya kasu kashi biyu: ilimi na gabaɗaya da na musamman. Tsarin ilimi mafi girma a Tunisia ya sami saurin haɓaka kuma adadin ɗalibai ya ninka fiye da sau uku a cikin shekaru goma 10 da suka gabata daga kusan dubu dari da biyu 102,000 a shekarar alif dubu daya da dari tara da casa'in da biyar 1995 zuwa dubu dari uku da sitting da biyar 365,000 a 2005. Yawan shiga makarantun gaba da sakandare a shekarar alif dubu biyu da bakwai 2007 ya kai kashi talatin da daya 31 cikin ɗari, tare da Ma'anar daidaiton jinsi na GER na daya da digo biyar 1.5.

Babban labarin: Lafiya a Tunisiya

A cikin shekarar dubu biyu da goma 2010, kashe kuɗi kan kiwon lafiya ya kai kashi ukku da digo talatin da bakwai 3.37% na GDP na ƙasar. A cikin shekarar dubu biyu da tara 2009, akwai likitoci goma sha biyu da digo sifili biyu 12.02 da ma'aikatan jinya guda talatin da ukku da digo goma sha biyu 33.12 a cikin dubu goma 10,000 mazaunan. Tsawon rayuwa a lokacin haihuwa shine shekaru saba'in da biyar da digo saba'in da ukku 75.73 a shekarar alif dubu biyu da goma sha shida 2016, ko kuma shekaru saba'in da ukku da digo saba'in da biyu 73.72 ga maza da shekaru saba'in da bakwai da digo saba'in da takwas 77.78 ga mata. Mutuwar jarirai a cikin shekarar alif dubu biyu da goma sha shida 2016 ya kasance goma sha daya da digo bakwai 11.7 cikin dubu daya 1,000.

Babban labarin: Al'adun Tunisiya

Municipal Theatre

Al'adun Tunisiya ya gauraye saboda dogon tarihin da ya kafa na tasirin waje daga mutane - irin su Phoenicians, Romawa, Vandals, Rumawa, Larabawa, Siculo-Normans, Turkawa, Italiyanci, Maltese da Faransanci - waɗanda duk sun bar alamarsu a kan al'adun gargajiya na kasa.

.

1. ↑ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180
2. ↑ Holes, Clive (2018-08-30). Arabic Historical Dialectology: Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Approaches (in Turanci). Oxford University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-19-100506-0.
3. ↑ "Tunisie : les législatives fixées au 26 octobre et la présidentielle au 23 novembre" [Tunisia: legislative elections fixed for 26 October and presidential elections for 23 November]. Jeune Afrique (in Faransanci). 25 June 2014.
4. ↑ "Tunisia holds first post-revolution presidential poll". BBC News. 23 November 2014.
5. ↑ "Democracy Index 2021". The Economist. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
6. ↑ "Democracy Index 2021: The China challenge". Economist Intelligence Unit. pp. 6–7. Archived from the original on 10 February 2022. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
7. ↑ "Tunisie – France-Diplomatie – Ministère des Affaires étrangères et du Développement international". Diplomatie.gouv.fr. Retrieved on 5 September 2015.
8. ↑ (in French) "Pourquoi l'Italie de Matteo Renzi se tourne vers la Tunisie avant l'Europe". JOL Journalism Online Press (28 February 2014). Archived 10 ga Augusta, 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 5 September 2015.
9. ↑ Ghanmi, Monia (12 September 2014). "La Tunisie renforce ses relations avec l'Italie" [Tunisia strengthens relations with Italy]. Magharebia (in Faransanci). Archived from the original on 14 September 2014.
10. ↑ ^{10.0 10.1} Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites. McFarland. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-7864-2248-7.
11. ↑ Rossi, Peter M.; White, Wayne Edward (1980). Articles on the Middle East, 1947–1971: A Cumulation of the Bibliographies from the Middle East Journal. Pierian Press, University of Michigan. p. 132.
12. ↑ Taylor, Isaac (2008). Names and Their Histories: A Handbook of Historical Geography and Topographical Nomenclature. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-559-29668-0.
13. ↑ Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (1987). E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. Brill. p. 838. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6.
14. ↑ Livy (2006). Yardley, John & Hoyos, Dexter (eds.). History of Rome. Hannibal's War: Books Twenty-one to Thirty. Oxford University Press. p. 705. ISBN 978-0-19-283159-0.
15. ↑ Banjamin Isaac, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity, Princeton University Press, 2013 p.147
16. ↑ "Carthage and the Numidians". Hannibalbarca.webspace.virginmedia.com. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
17. ↑ "Numidians (DBA II/40) and Moors (DBA II/57)". Fanaticus.org. 12 December 2001. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
18. ↑ "Numidia (ancient region, Africa)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
19. ↑ "The City of Carthage: From Dido to the Arab Conquest" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
20. ↑ Appian. The Punic Wars. livius.org
21. ↑ "Donatist". Encyclopædia Britannica.
22. ↑ Bury, John Bagnell (1958) History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I. to the Death of Justinian, Part 2, Courier Corporation. pp.124–148