『日本大百科全書』によると、明治維新・王政復古によって祭政一致(政教一致)が政治理念の基本とされ、天皇は国の「元首」かつ神聖不可侵な「現人神」とされた[163][164]。ここには、人と神の間に断絶の無い日本古来の神観念とは全く異なる、「一神教の神観念」が取り入れられていた[163]。天皇は「絶対的真理」と「普遍的道徳」を体現する至高存在とされ、あらゆる価値は天皇に一元化された[163]。東アジア学者の石川サトミによれば、日本人にとっての天皇は「彼らの唯一神、すなわち天皇(their God, i.e. the Tenno)」とも表現される[165]。
また、大日本帝国が存在した時代では、日本の「the emperor」が「唯一神として(as God)」見なされたり[166]、「人間形態として啓示された唯一神(God revealed in human form)」と主張されたりすることもあった[167](一神教では、唯一神は「Empepror」・「sole emperor」とも説かれる[168]。
ユダヤ教・キリスト教
例えば、帝国大学の比較宗教学者だった加藤玄智は、天皇は「日本人にとって、ユダヤ人が唯一神と呼んだ一つの地位を専有している(occupying for the Japanese the place of the one whom the Jews called God)」と論じていた[167]。加藤は唯一神(キリスト)と天皇を結びつけ、
ピーター・リャン・テック・ソンの歴史学論文によると、唯一神と天皇を同じ唯一者として信じるように、イスラムへ命令が下されることもあった[171]。例えば大日本帝国は、ジャワ島のムスリムたちへ「メッカよりも東京に礼拝し、日本天皇を唯一神として礼賛せよ、という日本軍の命令(the Japanese military orders to bow towards Tokyo rather than Mecca and to glorify the Japanese Emperor as God)」を伝えていた[171]。
^Moses Maimonides quoted RabbiAbraham Ben David: "It is stated in the Torah and books of the prophets that God has no body, as stated 'Since G-d your God is the god (lit. gods) in the heavens above and in the earth below" and a body cannot be in both places. And it was said 'Since you have not seen any image' and it was said 'To who would you compare me, and I would be equal to them?' and if he was a body, he would be like the other bodies."[51]
^Sharma, Chandradhar (1962). “Chronological Summary of History of Indian Philosophy”. Indian Philosophy: A Critical Survey. New York: Barnes & Noble. p. vi
^Nikiprowetzky, V. (1975). Ethical monotheism. (2 ed., Vol. 104, pp. 69-89). New York: The MIT Press Article Stable. JSTOR20024331
^ abcThe Hebrew Bible: A Critical Companion, ed. John Barton(Princeton University Press, 2016) pp. 240-241
^Dorothy Irvin, Mytharion: The Comparison of Tales from the Old Testament Testament and the Ancient Near East (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1978), pp. 101-
^ abPagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Edited by Polymnia Athanassiadi, Michael Frede, CLARENDON PRESS • OXFORD(1999), pp. 43-44. "the Platonists, the Peripatetics, and the Stoics do not just believe in one highest god, they believe in something which they must take to be unique even as a god. For they call it ‘God’ or even ‘the God’, as if in some crucial way it was the only thing which deserved to be called ‘god’. If, thus, they also believe that there are further beings which can be called ‘divine’ or ‘god’, they must have thought that these further beings could be called ‘divine’ only in some less strict, diminished, or derived sense. Second, the Christians themselves speak not only of the one true God, but also of a plurality of beings which can be called ‘divine’ or ‘god’; for instance, the un-fallen angels or redeemed and saved human beings."
^ abPagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Edited by Polymnia Athanassiadi, Michael Frede, CLARENDON PRESS • OXFORD(1999), p. 49. "As the principle of everything it is, according to Aristotle, the ultimate source of all order and goodness in the world. And Aristotle explicitly attributes unlimited power to it. So when Aristotle talks about the God, he means one particular divine being whose status, even as a divine being, is so unique that it can be called ‘the God’......Even if the order of things envisaged leaves room for beings which can be called ‘divine’, it is clear that they will be so fundamentally derivative and subordinate to the God that, for instance, talk of a ‘highest God’ is in some ways quite misleading. For the relation between a first principle and those things which depend on the principle involves a much more radical subordination than that involved in a pantheon or hierarchy of gods with one god at the apex. A fortiori, the analogy with Zeus is somewhat misleading."
^Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Edited by Polymnia Athanassiadi, Michael Frede, CLARENDON PRESS • OXFORD(1999), p. 53. "Nevertheless, this clearly means that only Zeus satisfies the criterion for being a god fully, whereas all other gods only satisfy the criterion by not insisting on strict indestructibility, but by accepting a weak form of immortality. It is only in this diminished sense that things other than Zeus can be called ‘god’. More importantly, though, these other gods only exist because the God has created them as part of his creation of the best possible world, in which they are meant to play a certain role. The power they thus have is merely the power to do what the God has fated them to do. They act completely in accordance with the divine plan......It is very clear in their case, even more so than in Aristotle’s, that these further divine beings are radically dependent on the God and only exist because they have a place in the divine order of things. Far from governing the universe or having any independent share in its governance, they only share in the execution of the divine plan; they are not even immortal, strictly speaking. Theirs is a rather tenuous divinity."
^Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Edited by Polymnia Athanassiadi, Michael Frede, CLARENDON PRESS • OXFORD(1999), p. 54. "So there is one God, but there are also other beings which are called ‘divine’, though they are created, because they are by Divine grace immortal and enjoy a good life. But they only exist as part of God’s creation and they are immortal and hence divine only due to the God’s benevolence or grace, that is to say they owe their very divinity to God. S"
^ abPagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Edited by Polymnia Athanassiadi, Michael Frede, CLARENDON PRESS • OXFORD(1999), p. 57. "Both Stoics and Platonists assumed that the world above the earth was filled with demons. Not all of them were divine. Some of them were far from living a life of bliss, because they were far from being wise and virtuous, if not outright malevolent. Nevertheless, they might have extraordinary powers and knowledge, for instance, about the future. If one knew how to do it, one could, because of their weaknesses, manipulate them to exercise these powers for one’s own benefit or to reveal their knowledge. This line between good demons and questionable demons, or rather the line between enrolling the help of good demons and manipulating questionable demons, was not so easy to draw."
^Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies V xiv 109.1–3
^Diels-Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Xenophanes frr. 15–16.
^Augustine and the Corporeality of God, Carl W. Griffin and David L. Paulsen, The Harvard Theological Review Vol. 95, No. 1 (Jan., 2002), p. 97, "All of this stands in stark contrast with that Christian theology which developed, primarily under the influence of Platonism, a nonanthropomorphic and incorporeal conception of God that has come to dominate all subsequent theology and philosophy"
^Religion, Ethics, and the Meaning of Life, ROLANDO M. GRIPALDO, KEMANUSIAAN 15 (2008), 27–40, p. 28
^"Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Edited by Polymnia Athanassiadi, Michael Frede, CLARENDON PRESS • OXFORD(1999), p. 51. But the Stoics not only think that all beings are material or corporeal, they also, more specifically, identify God or Zeus with a certain kind of fire which is supposed to be intelligent, active, and creative. So perhaps we have to assume that the Stoics distinguish two aspects of the fiery substance which is Zeus, two aspects, though, which in reality are never separated, namely its divine, creative character, and its material character. Thus God and Zeus are the same to the extent that Zeus is active, creative, intelligent. Now the Stoics also believe that the world is a rational animal that periodically turns entirely into the fiery substance which is Zeus. What happens is that the reason of this animal is itself constituted by this fiery substance, and that this reason slowly consumes and absorbs into itself the soul and the body of the world. Thus, in this state of conflagration, the world, the reason of the world, and Zeus completely coincide."
^Maimonides, Moses, “Fundamentals of Torah, Ch. 1, § 8”, Book of Science
^James Joseph Fox (1907). "Anthropomorphism" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company., "The Scriptures themselves amply warn us against the mistake of interpreting their figurative language in too literal a sense. They teach that God is spiritual, omniscient, invisible, omnipresent, ineffable. Insistence upon the literal interpretation of the metaphorical led to the error of the Anthropomorphites."
^Augustine and the Corporeality of God, Carl W. Griffin and David L. Paulsen, The Harvard Theological Review Vol. 95, No. 1 (Jan., 2002), p. 108, "Augustine himself clarifies what he means by anthropomorphism/corporealism not being catholic doctrine: "The Catholic faith does not teach what we thought and we were mistaken in criticizing it. The Church's educated men (docti) think it is wrong to believe that God is bounded by the shape of a human body" (Conf.6.11.18).
^JESUS AND THE FATHER, Tim Bulkeley, Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 17:2 (2014), pp. 145-147. Gregory of Nyssa, Homily VII In Cantica Canticorum (PG 44: 916B)—“God is not either male or female;” in Greek, the quotation reads: epeide gar oute arren, oute thelu to theion esti;. Jerome, In Esaiam (CCSL 73: 459, 1.82-83)—“There is no sexuality in the Godhead;” in Latin, the quotation reads: In divinitate enim nullus est sexus.
^Leftow, Brian, 1988, “The Roots of Eternity,” Religious Studies, 24: pp. 199–200.
^John of Damascus, Writings, Frederic H. Chase, Jr., (trans.), (The Fathers of the Church, Volume 37), Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1958. p. 173
^Aquinas, St. Thomas, On the Truth of the Catholic Faith: Summa Contra Gentiles, Book One, Anton C. Pegis (trans.), Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday Image Books, 1955. p. 158
^John Duns Scotus, Philosophical Writings, Allan Wolter (trans.), Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson, 1962.
^John Duns Scotus, Philosophical Writings, Allan Wolter (trans.), Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson, 1962. p. 87
^al-Ghazali, Al Ghazali’s Tract on Dogmatic Theology, A. L. Tibawi (trans.), London: Luzac, 1965. p. 40
^William of Ockham, Philosophical Writings, Philotheus Boehner (trans.), Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1964. pp. 139-40
^Ostler, Jeffry. The Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism from Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee. Cambridge University Press, Jul 5, 2004. ISBN0521605903, pg 26.
^Thomas, Robert Murray. Manitou and God: North-American Indian Religions and Christian Culture. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. ISBN0313347794 pg 35.
^Means, Robert. Where White Men Fear to Tread: The Autobiography of Russell Means. Macmillan, 1995. ISBN0312147619 pg 241.
^R. Meserve, Religions in the central Asian environment. In: History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume IV, The age of achievement: A.D. 750 to the end of the fifteenth century, Part Two: The achievements, p. 68:
"[...] The 'imperial' religion was more monotheistic, centred around the all-powerful god Tengri, the sky god."
^
The spelling Tengrism is found in the 1960s, e.g. Bergounioux (ed.), Primitive and prehistoric religions, Volume 140, Hawthorn Books, 1966, p. 80.
Tengrianism is a reflection of the Russian term, Тенгрианство. It is reported in 1996 ("so-called Tengrianism") in Shnirelʹman (ed.), Who gets the past?: competition for ancestors among non-Russian intellectuals in Russia, Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1996, ISBN978-0-8018-5221-3, p. 31 in the context of the nationalist rivalry over Bulgar legacy. The spellings Tengriism and Tengrianity are later, reported (deprecatingly, in scare quotes) in 2004 in Central Asiatic journal, vol. 48-49 (2004), p. 238. The Turkish term Tengricilik is also found from the 1990s. Mongolian Тэнгэр шүтлэг is used in a 1999 biography of Genghis Khan (Boldbaatar et al., Чингис хаан, 1162-1227, Хаадын сан, 1999, p. 18).
^"There is no doubt that between the 6th and 9th centuries Tengrism was the religion among the nomads of the steppes" Yazar András Róna-Tas, Hungarians and Europe in the early Middle Ages: an introduction to early Hungarian history, Yayıncı Central European University Press, 1999, ISBN978-963-9116-48-1, p. 151.
^E. Kessler, Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus: "two monotheistic religions, Dionysian and Christian, existed contemporaneously in Nea Paphos during the 4th century C.E. [...] the particular iconography of Hermes and Dionysos in the panel of the Epiphany of Dionysos [...] represents the culmination of a pagan iconographic tradition in which an infant divinity is seated on the lap of another divine figure; this pagan motif was appropriated by early Christian artists and developed into the standardized icon of the Virgin and Child. Thus the mosaic helps to substantiate the existence of pagan monotheism." [(AbstractArchived 2008-04-21 at the Wayback Machine.)
^Knight, Douglas A.; Levine, Amy-Jill (2011). The Meaning of the Bible: What the Jewish Scriptures and Christian Old Testament Can Teach Us (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. ISBN978-0062098597
^Monotheism, My Jewish Learning, "Many critical scholars think that the interval between the Exodus and the proclamation of monotheism was much longer. Outside of Deuteronomy the earliest passages to state that there are no gods but the Lord are in poems and prayers attributed to Hannah and David, one and a half to two and a half centuries after the Exodus at the earliest. Such statements do not become common until the seventh century B.C.E., the period to which Deuteronomy is dated by the critical view."
^Yesode Ha-Torah 1:7 "God, the Cause of all, is one. This does not mean one as in one of a pair, nor one like a species (which encompasses many individuals), nor one as in an object that is made up of many elements, nor as a single simple object that is infinitely divisible. Rather, God is a unity, unlike any other possible unity."
^Ecumenical, from Koine Greekoikoumenikos, literally meaning worldwide the earliest extant uses of the term for a council are in Eusebius's Life of Constantine 3.6 [1] around 338 "σύνοδον οἰκουμενικὴν συνεκρότει" (he convoked an Ecumenical council), Athanasius's Ad Afros Epistola Synodica in 369 [2], and the Letter in 382 to Pope Damasus I and the Latin bishops from the First Council of Constantinople[3]Archived 2006-06-13 at the Wayback Machine.
Hence all the power of magic became dissolved; and every bond of wickedness was destroyed, men's ignorance was taken away, and the old kingdom abolished God Himself appearing in the form of a man, for the renewal of eternal life.
—St. Ignatius of Antioch in Letter to the Ephesians, ch.4, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation
We have also as a Physician the Lord our God Jesus the Christ the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary the virgin. For 'the Word was made flesh.' Being incorporeal, He was in the body; being impassible, He was in a passable body; being immortal, He was in a mortal body; being life, He became subject to corruption, that He might free our souls from death and corruption, and heal them, and might restore them to health, when they were diseased with ungodliness and wicked lusts
—St. Ignatius of Antioch in Letter to the Ephesians, ch.7, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation
The Church, though dispersed throughout the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received from the apostles and their disciples this faith: ...one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets the dispensations of God, and the advents, and the birth from a virgin, and the passion, and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord, and His manifestation from heaven in the glory of the Father 'to gather all things in one,' and to raise up anew all flesh of the whole human race, in order that to Christ Jesus, our Lord, and God, and Savior, and King, according to the will of the invisible Father, 'every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth, and that every tongue should confess; to him, and that He should execute just judgment towards all...'
For, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Savior Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit, they then receive the washing with water
—Justin Martyr in First Apology, ch. LXI, Donaldson, Sir James (1950), Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN978-0802880871
^Unitarians at 'Catholic Encyclopedia', ed. Kevin Knight at New Advent website
^Mohammed Amin. “Triangulating the Abrahamic faiths – measuring the closeness of Judaism, Christianity and Islam”. 2022 May 18閲覧。 “Christians were seen as polytheists, due to the doctrine of the Trinity. In the last few hundred years, rabbis have moderated this view slightly, but they still do not regard Christians as being fully monotheistic in the same manner as Jews or Muslims. Muslims were acknowledged as monotheists.”
^“Islamic Practices”. Universal Life Church Ministries. 2022 May 18閲覧。 “It is the Islamic belief that Christianity is not monotheistic, as it claims, but rather polytheistic with the trinity-the father, son and the Holy Ghost.”
^Lesson 10: Three Persons are Subsistent Relations, International Catholic University: "The fatherhood constitutes the Person of the Father, the sonship constitutes the Person of the Son, and the passive spiration constitutes the Person of the Holy Spirit. But in God "everything is one where there is no distinction by relative opposition." Consequently, even though in God there are three Persons, there is only one consciousness, one thinking and one loving. The three Persons share equally in the internal divine activity because they are all identified with the divine essence. For, if each divine Person possessed his own distinct and different consciousness, there would be three gods, not the one God of Christian revelation. So you will see that in this regard there is an immense difference between a divine Person and a human person."
^Trinity, Britannica: "The Council of Nicaea in 325 stated the crucial formula for that doctrine in its confession that the Son is “of the same substance [homoousios] as the Father,” even though it said very little about the Holy Spirit. Over the next half century, Athanasius defended and refined the Nicene formula, and, by the end of the 4th century, under the leadership of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus (the Cappadocian Fathers), the doctrine of the Trinity took substantially the form it has maintained ever since. It is accepted in all of the historic confessions of Christianity, even though the impact of the Enlightenment decreased its importance."
^Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam. Princeton University Press. p. 4
^Lawson, Todd (2011). Gnostic Apocalypse and Islam: Qurʼan, Exegesis, Messianism and the Literary Origins of the Babi Religion. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0415495394
^Tisdall, William (1911). The Sources of Islam: A Persian Treatise. London: Morrison and Gibb. pp. 46–74
^Rudolph, Kurt (2001). Gnosis: The Nature And History of Gnosticism. London: T&T Clark Int'l. pp. 367–390. ISBN978-0567086402
^Hoeller, Stephan A. (2002). Gnosticism: New Light on the Ancient Tradition of Inner Knowing. Wheaton, IL: Quest Books. pp. 155–174. ISBN978-0835608169
^Smith, Andrew (2006). The Lost Sayings of Jesus: Teachings from Ancient Christian, Jewish, Gnostic, and Islamic Sources--Annotated & Explained. Skylight Paths Publishing. ISBN978-1594731723
^Tillman, Nagel (2000). The History of Islamic Theology from Muhammad to the Present. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 215–234. ISBN978-1558762039
^Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
^Tamara Sonn (2009). "Tawḥīd". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195305135。
^Greenway, Charles C. (1878). "Kamilaroi language and Traditions". The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 7: 232-274. doi:10.2307/2841001. JSTOR 2841001.
^Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān, ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ "They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garuda.
To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan."
^ Swaminarayan bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981. p. 154: ...Shri Vallabhacharya [and] Shri Swaminarayan... Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotieon (Nirguna Bhakti), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154, Sahajānanda, Vedanta. 1981
^Elkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub
^Dimock Jr, E.C.; Dimock, E.C. (1989). The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal. University Of Chicago Presspage 132
^
Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey: Routledge. p. 4. ISBN0-7007-1281-X
Fiddes, Paul S. (2000). Participating in God: A Pastoral Doctrine of the Trinity. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN978-0664223359
Ishikawa, Satomi『Seeking the Self: Individualism and Popular Culture in Japan』Peter Lang Pub Inc.、2007年。ISBN978-3039108749。
James, W. Fiscus (2004). Critical Perspectives on World War II. Critical Anthologies of Nonfiction Writing (Library Binding ed.). Rosen Pub Group. ISBN978-1404200654
Sun, Peter Liang Tek (2008). A Life Under Three Flags (PhD Thesis). University of Western Sydney