Radha (Sanskrit: राधा, IAST: Rādhā), also called Radhika, is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of the god Krishna. She is the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion, and devotion. In scriptures, Radha is mentioned as the avatar of Lakshmi[12][13] and also as the Mūlaprakriti, the Supreme goddess, who is the feminine counterpart and internal potency (hladini shakti) of Krishna.[1][14][15][16][17] Radha accompanies Krishna in all his incarnations.[18][19] Radha's birthday is celebrated every year on the occasion of Radhashtami.[20][21]
In relation with Krishna, Radha has dual representation—the lover consort as well as his married consort. Traditions like Nimbarka Sampradaya worship Radha as the eternal consort and wedded wife of Krishna.[22][23][24][25] In contrast, traditions like Gaudiya Vaishnavism revere her as Krishna's lover and the divine consort.[26][24]
Radha is described as the chief of BrajGopis (milkmaids of Braj) and queen of Goloka and Braj including Vrindavan and Barsana.[24] She has inspired numerous literary works, and her Raslila dance with Krishna has inspired many types of performance arts.[29][30][26][31]
Etymology and epithets
14th-century fresco of Radha (right) and Krishna (left, playing flute) in Udaipur, Rajasthan.
The Sanskrit term Rādhā (Sanskrit: राधा) means "prosperity, success, perfection and wealth".[32][33][34] It is a common word and name found in various contexts in the ancient and medieval texts of India. The word appears in the Vedic literature as well as the Hindu epics, but is elusive.[34] The name also appears for a figure in the epic Mahabharata.[32] Rādhikā refers to an endearing form of Radha.[32]
In chapter 15th, Goloka khanda of Garga Samhita, Sage Garga elaborates the complete meaning of Radha. In Radha, 'R' signifies Rama, goddess Lakshmi, 'a' means Gopis, "dh" signifies dhara, goddess Bhudevi and last 'a' symbolises RiverVirājā (also called Yamuna).[35]
The fifth chapter, Fifth night of Narada Pancharatra mentioned 1008 names of Radha under the title Shri Radha Saharsnama Strotam.[36][37] The 68th chapter, Tritiya paad of Narada Purana also listed 500 names of Radha.[38] Some of the common names and epithets are:[39][40][41][38]
Sri, Shreeji, Shriji: Goddess of radiance, splendor and wealth; Lakshmi
Jayadeva recites the mantra to Radha Krishna by Manaku.[42]
Radha is an important goddess in the Vaishnavite traditions of Hinduism. Her traits, manifestations, descriptions, and roles vary by region. Radha is intrinsic with Krishna. In early Indian literature, mentions of her are elusive. The traditions that venerate her explain this is because she is the secret treasure hidden within the sacred scriptures. During the Bhakti movement era in the sixteenth century, she became more well known as her extraordinary love for Krishna was highlighted.[43][44]
O woman with desire, place on this patch of flower-strewn floor your lotus foot,
And let your foot through beauty win,
To me who am the Lord of All, O be attached, now always yours.
O follow me, my little Radha.
However, the source of Jayadeva's heroine in his poem remains a puzzle of the Sanskrit literature. A possible explanation is Jayadeva's friendship with Nimbarkacharya,[50] the first acharya to establish the worship of Radha-Krishna.[51] Nimbarka, in accordance with the Sahitya Akademi's Encyclopaedia, more than any other acharyas gave Radha a place as a deity.[52]
Prior to Gita Govinda, Radha was also mentioned in text Gatha Saptasati which is a collection of 700 verses composed in Prakrit language by King Hāla.[53] The text was written around first or second century AD. Gatha Saptasati mentioned Radha explicitly in its verse:[34][54][55]
"O Krishna, by the puff of breath from your mouth, as you blow the dust from Radha's face, you take away the glories of other milkmaids."
Radha also appears in the Puranas namely the Padma Purana (as an avatar of Lakshmi), the Devi-Bhagavata Purana (as a form of Mahadevi), the Brahma Vaivarta Purana (as Radha-Krishna supreme deity), the Matsya Purana (as form of Devi), the Linga Purana (as form of Lakshmi), the Varaha Purana (as consort of Krishna), the Narada Purana (as goddess of love), the Skanda Purana and the Shiva Purana.[34][56][57] The 15th and 16th century KrishnaiteBhakti poet-saints Vidyapati, Chandidas, Meera Bai, Surdas, Swami Haridas, as well as Narsinh Mehta (1350–1450), who preceded all of them, wrote about the romance of Krishna and Radha too.[58] Thus, Chandidas in his Bengali-language Shri Krishna Kirtana, a poem of Bhakti, depicts Radha and Krishna as divine, but in human love.[59][60] Though not named in the Bhagavata Purana, Visvanatha Chakravarti (c. 1626–1708) interprets an unnamed favourite gopi in the scripture as Radha.[61][62] She makes appearances in Venisamhara by Bhatta Narayana (c. 800 CE), Dhvanyaloka by Anandavardhana (c. 820–890 CE) and its commentary Dhvanyalokalocana by Abhinavagupta (c. 950 – 1016 CE), Rajasekhara's (late ninth-early tenth century) Kāvyamīmāṃsā, Dashavatara-charita (1066 CE) by Kshemendra and Siddhahemasabdanusana by Hemachandra (c. 1088–1172).[63] In most of these, Radha is depicted as someone who is deeply in love with Krishna and is deeply saddened when Krishna leaves her.[64][56] But, on contrary, Radha of the Rādhātantram is portrayed as audacious, sassy, confident, omniscient and divine personality who is in full control at all times. In Rādhātantram, Radha is not merely the consort but is treated as the independent goddess. Here, Krishna is portrayed as her disciple and Radha as his guru.[63]
Charlotte Vaudeville theorizes that Radha may have inspired by the pairing of the goddess Ekanamsha (associated with Durga) with Jagannatha (who is identified with Krishna) of Puri in Eastern India. Though Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15th century, the founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism) is not known to have worshiped the deity couple of Radha-Krishna, his disciples around the Vrindavan region, affirmed Radha as the hladini shakti ("energy of bliss") of Krishna, associating her with the Primordial Divine Mother. While the poetry of Jayadeva and Vidyapati from Bengal treat Radha as Krishna's "mistress", the Gaudiya poetry elevates her to a divine consort.[65] In Western India, Vallabhacharya's Krishna-centric sampradaya Pushtimarg, Radha is revered as the Swamini of Krishna, who is worthy of devotion.[66][67]
According to Jaya Chemburkar, there are at least two significant and different aspects of Radha in the literature associated with her, such as Sri Radhika namasahasram. One aspect is she is a milkmaid (gopi), another as a female deity similar to those found in the Hindu goddess traditions.[68] She also appears in Hindu arts as Ardhanari with Krishna, that is an iconography where half of the image is Radha and the other half is Krishna. This is found in sculpture such as those discovered in Maharashtra, and in texts such as Shiva Purana and Brahma Vaivarta Purana. In these texts, this Ardha Nari is sometimes referred to as Ardharadhavenudhara murti, and it symbolizes the complete union and inseparability of Radha and Krishna.[69]
D.M. Wulff demonstrates through a close study of her Sanskrit and Bengali sources that Radha is both the "consort" and "conqueror" of Krishna and that "metaphysically Radha is understood as co-substantial and co-eternal with Krishna." Indeed, the more popular vernacular traditions prefer to worship the couple and often tilt the balance of power towards Radha.[70]
Graham M. Schweig in his work "The divine feminine theology of Krishna" in context with Radha Krishna stated that, "The divine couple, Radha and Krishna, comprise the essence of godhead. Radha is therefore acknowledged by Chaitanyaite Vaishnavas to be part of very center of their theological doctrine. Sacred images of the forms of Radha Krishna, standing together side by side, are elaborately worshiped in the Indian temples. Through her image, her divine character and her amorous and passionate relations with Krishna, Radha is the constant meditation of practitioners.[71]
According to William Archer and David Kinsley, a professor of Religious Studies known for his studies on Hindu goddesses, the Radha-Krishna love story is a metaphor for a divine-human relationship, where Radha is the human devotee or soul who is frustrated with the past, obligations to social expectations, and the ideas she inherited, who then longs for real meaning, the true love, the divine (Krishna). This metaphoric Radha (soul) finds new liberation in learning more about Krishna, bonding in devotion, and with passion.[72][73][56]
An image of Radha has inspired numerous literary works.[30] For modern instance, the Shri Radhacharita Mahakavyam—the 1980s epic poem of Dr. Kalika Prasad Shukla that focuses on Radha's devotion to Krishna as the universal lover—"one of the rare, high-quality works in Sanskrit in the twentieth century."[74]
Radha and Sita
The Radha-Krishna and Sita-Rama pairs represent two different personality sets, two perspectives on dharma and lifestyles, both cherished in the way of life called Hinduism.[75] Sita is traditionally wedded: the dedicated and virtuous wife of Rama, an introspective temperate paragon of a serious, virtuous man.[76][77][78] Radha is a power potency of Krishna, who is a playful adventurer.[76][75]
Radha and Sita offer two templates within the Hindu tradition. If "Sita is a queen, aware of her social responsibilities", states Pauwels, then "Radha is exclusively focused on her romantic relationship with her lover", giving two contrasting role models from two ends of the moral universe. Yet they share common elements as well. Both face life challenges and are committed to their true love. They are both influential, adored and beloved goddesses in the Hindu culture.[75]
In worship of Rama, Sita is represented as a dutiful and loving wife, holding a position entirely subordinate to Rama. However, in the worship of Radha Krishna, Radha is often preferred over to Krishna, and in certain traditions, her name is elevated to a higher position compared to Krishna's.[79]
Radha in Hinduism, is revered as the goddess of love. She is mostly depicted along with Krishna or gopis in the land of Braj. Various art forms based on Radha Krishna are majorly inspired by Gita Govinda and Rasikapriya.[80][81] In Rajput paintings, Radha represents an ideal of beauty, wearing the traditional sari decorated extensively with patterns and ornamented in jewelry with lighter skin tone and emphasized facial features.[82][83] In Kishangarh paintings, Radha is represented as beautifully dressed woman in ghagra choli with pearl jewelry and a dark diaphanous veil over her head. The famous Bani Thani portrait by artist Nihâl Chand was inspired by Radha's physical features which includes sharp eyebrows, lotus-like elongated eyes, thin lips and a pointed nose and chin.[84]
In religious art forms, Radha also appears as Ardhanari with Krishna, that is an iconography where half of the image is Radha and the other half is Krishna forming the combined masculine and feminine form of Ardhanarishvara.[69]
In Radha Krishna temples, Radha stands on the left of Krishna, with a garland in her hand.[85] She is often dressed in traditional sari or ghagra-choli along with a veil. Her jewelry from top to bottom is either made of metals, pearls or flowers.[86]
The Sanskrit scripture Brahma Vaivarta Purana describes Radha as the beautiful and youthful goddess having the molten golden complexion and wearing the garlands of gems and flowers.[87]
Life and legends
Radha in her human form is revered as the milkmaid (gopi) of Vrindavan who became the beloved of Krishna. One of the basic traits of Radha is her unconditional love for Krishna and her sufferings that forms the basis for Radha's exaltation as a model of devotion.[88]
Birth and early life
A statue of Radha as a child in Raval temple.
Radha was born to Vrishbhanu, who was the Yadava ruler of Barsana and his wife Kirtida.[89][90][91] Her birthplace is Raval which is a small town near Gokul in Uttar pradesh, but is often said to be Barsana where she grew up.[92] According to popular legend, Radha was discovered by Vrishbhanu on an effulgent lotus floating in Yamuna river. Radha was nine months older than Krishna.[93] She didn't open her eyes until Krishna himself in his child form appeared in front of her.[94][95][96]
"Ashtasakhis" (translated to eight friends) are the integral part of Radha's childhood and youth.[97] It is believed that all the Ashtasakhis are the intimate friends of Radha Krishna and also have descended from Goloka in Braj region. Out of all the eight sakhis, Lalita and Vishakha are the prominent ones.[98] According to Chaitanya Charitamrita's Antya lila (2:6:116), Radha also received a boon from sage Durvasa in her childhood that whatever she cooks would be better than the nectar.[99]
Stories of Radha's youth are filled with her divine pastimes with Krishna.[100] Some of the popular pastimes of Radha Krishna include: Raslila, pastimes of Radha Kund, Gopashtami lila,[101]Lathmar Holi, Seva Kunj lila in which Krishna did sringara of Radha,[102]Maan lila ( A special stage in divine love in which the devotee develops so much love for God as to even attain the right of getting angry with him),[103]Mor Kutir lila in which Krishna performed a dance lila by dressing himself as a peacock to please Radha,[104]Gopadevi lila (Krishna took form of female to meet Radha) and Lilahava in which Radha Krishna dressed in each other clothes.[105]
Relationship with Krishna
Radha and Krishna share two kinds of relationships, Parakiya (Love without any social limitation) and Svakiya (married relationship).[a] Radha asked Krishna why he can't marry her, the reply came "Marriage is a union of two souls. You and I are one soul, how can I marry myself?"[106] Several Hindu texts allude to these circumstances.[56]
Radha Krishna's marriage is being performed by Brahma in Bhandirvan, Vrindavan
The Sanskrit texts, Brahma Vaivarta Purana and the Garga Samhita mention that Krishna secretly married Radha in the presence of Brahma in the Bhandirvan forest before leaving Vrindavan.[107][108] The place where Radha Krishna's marriage was conducted is still present in the outskirts of Vrindavan, called Radha Krishna Vivah Sthali, Bhandirvan.[109] The story mentioned in Brahma Vaivarta Purana indicates that Radha has always been Krishna's divine consort. But to give importance to Parakiya relationship (love without any social foundation) over Svakiya's (married relationship), Radha Krishna's marriage was kept hidden.[110][111][112][113]
Life after Krishna left Vrindavan
According to Garga Samhita and Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Radha also left her home post Krishna's departure and went to Kadli vann (forest) leaving behind her illusionary form (also called Chaya Radha, her shadow) in Barsana. Radha with Ashtasakhi also met Uddhava in this forest who delivered them Krishna's message.[114][115]
Reuniting with Krishna
Radha and Gopis meeting Krishna in forest.
It is mentioned in Brahma Vaivarta Purana (Krishnajanma Khanda, Chapter 96)[116] and Garga Samhita (Ashvamedha Khanda, Chapter 41)[117] that after the curse of 100 years of separation ran out,[b] Krishna revisited Braj and met Radha and gopis. After performing the divine pastimes for sometime, Krishna summoned a huge divine chariot which took the residents of Braj along with Radha and gopis back to their celestial abode Goloka where the final reunion of Radha Krishna took place.[118][119][120]
As Supreme Goddess
Radha depicted as Supreme goddess while Krishna humbly stands in front of her.
In Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Radha (or Rādhikā), who is inseparable from Krishna, appears as the main goddess.[121] She is mentioned as the personification of the Mūlaprakriti, the "Root nature", that original seed from which all material forms evolved. In the company of the Purusha ("Man", "Spirit", "Universal soul") Krishna, she is said to inhabit the Goloka, which is a world of cows and cowherds far above the Vishnu's Vaikuntha. In this divine world, Krishna and Radha relate to one another in the way body relates to the soul. (4.6.216)[122][123]
According to Krishnaism, Radha is the chief female deity and is associated with Krishna's maya (material energy) and prakriti (feminine energy). At highest level Goloka, Radha is said to be united with Krishna and abiding with him in the same body. The relationship between Radha Krishna is that of substance and attribute: they are as inseparable as Milk and its whiteness or Earth and its smell. This level of Radha's identity transcends her material nature as prakriti and exits in the form of pure consciousness (Narada Purana, Uttara Khana - 59.8). While Radha is identical to Krishna at this highest level, this merger of identities seems to end when she separates from him. After separation she manifest herself as the goddess Primordial prakriti (Mūlaprakriti) who is called the "Maker of Universe" or "Mother of All" (Narada Purana, Purva-Khanda, 83.10-11, 83.44, 82.214).[124][125]
In Nimbarkacharya's Vedanta Kamadhenu Dashashloki (verse 6), it is clearly stated that:
The left portion of the body of the Supreme Lord is Srimati Radha, seated blissfully, as beautiful as the Lord Himself; who is served by thousands of gopis: we meditate on the Supreme Goddess, the fulfiller of all desires.
In the hymnal Hita-Caurasi of Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu, the 16th-century bhakti poet-saint, founder of Radha Vallabh Sampradaya, Radharani is exalted to the status of the only ultimate deity, while her consort Krishna is just her most intimate subordinate.[126] As a precursor to this view can be understand Jayadeva, in whose Gita Govinda (10.9) Krishna is beneath Radha.[127]
Radha is also considered as the personification of Krishna's love. According to doctrines attributed to Vaishnavite saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, It is said that, Krishna has three powers: the internal which is intelligence, the external which generates appearances and the differentiated which forms the individual soul. His chief power is that which creates dilatation of the heart or joy. This appears to be the power of love. When this love becomes settled in the heart of the devotee, it constitutes Mahabhava, or the best feeling. When love attains to the highest pitch, it constitutes itself into Radha, who is the most lovable of all and full of all qualities. She was the object of the highest love of Krishna and being idealized as love, some of the agreeable feelings of the heart are considered her ornaments.[128]
In Narada Pancharatra Samhita, Radha is mentioned as the feminine form of Krishna. It is described that, the one single lord is represented to have become two—one a woman and the other a man. Krishna retained his form of man while the female form became Radha. Radha is said to have come out from primordial body of Krishna, forming his left side, and is eternally associated with him in his amorous sports in this world as well as the world of cows (Goloka).[79][17]
Radha is often identified with the "sweet" aspect of goddess Lakshmi's essence and thus also worshiped as an avatara of Lakshmi. In Shri Daivakrita Lakshmi Strotam, Lakshmi is praised and glorified in her form of Radha[129]
In Goloka, you are the goddess more dear to Krishna than life itself, His own Radhika.
Deep in the Vrinda forest, you are the mistress of mesmerizing rasa dance.
— Shri Daivakrita Lakshmi Strotam
According to the Garga Samhita (Canto 2, chapter 22, verses 26–29), during the rasa pastime, on the request of gopis, Radha and Krishna showed them their eight armed forms and turned into their Lakshmi Narayan forms. (2.22.26)[130]
In Skanda Purana (Vaishnava Khand, chapter 128), Yamuna describes Radha as the soul of Krishna. She emphasis that "Radha is Krishna and Krishna is Radha" and all the queens of Krishna including Rukmini are the expansion of Radha.[131]
Portrayal
As Krishna's lover consort (Parakiya rasa)
Radha is admired as an ideal of perfect lover. In Gita Govinda, it is not certain whether Radha was married or if she was an unmarried maiden. But, the relationship between Radha Krishna was unfolded in the secrecy of Vrindavan forest hinting at the Parakiya rasa. This can be understood from the verse where Nanda, the father of Krishna, who represents social authority and ideal of dharma ordered Radha Krishna to go home as storm was approaching Vrindavan but the order was defied by the couple. The translation of first verse of Gita Govinda is as follows:
Radha, you alone must take him home. This is Nanda's command. But, Radha and Madhava (Krishna) stray to a tree in the grove by the path and on the bank of the Yamuna their secret love games prevail.
— Jayadev, Gita Govinda
In the Gita govinda, Radha stands in relation to Krishna as his consort. She is neither a wife nor a devoted rustic playmate. She is an intense, solitary, proud figure who is addressed as Sri, Candi, Manini, Bhamini and Kaamini. She is portrayed as Krishna's partner in a mature and exclusive love.[34]
In Vidyapati's work, Radha is depicted as a young girl barely twelve years old, while Krishna is depicted slightly older than her and as an aggressive lover. In the work of poet Chandidas, Radha is depicted as a bold woman who is unafraid of social consequences. Radha abandons all social propriety in the name of her love for Krishna. Excerpts of Chandidas's work showing Radha's boldness:
Casting away all the ethics of caste, my heart dotes on Krishna day and night. The custom of the clan is far away cry, and now I know that love adheres wholly to its own laws.
I have blackened my golden skin longing for him. As the fire encircled me, my life begins to wilt. And my heart brooding eternally, parched for my dark darling, My Krishna.
— Chandidas
In loving Krishna, Radha violates the basis of caste, showing no care for the realities of social structures. Love consumed her to extent that once having fair complexion, Radha turned herself into Krishna's dark color. Chandidas used the word "fire" as synonym for Radha's love towards Krishna. The Radha of Chandidas is favored by Gaudiya Vaishnavas.[14]
As Krishna's married consort (Svakiya rasa)
Krishna painting feet of Radha, 1760 art form based on Braj's Rasikapriya text.
Rasikapriya, a Braj text on poetics depicts Radha as the married consort of Krishna. It is a frequently illustrated text that deals with the Radha Krishna's romance and is written by one of the most prominent writers of the Riti kavya tradition, Kesavdas. Changes in the portrayal of Radha, as articulated in the Rasikapriya, have significant implications for later literary traditions. In the Riti kavya literature, especially the Rasikapriya, Radha is depicted as the archetypal heroine and is used to exemplify the ideal form of connection to Krishna. Rather than depicting her as a parakiya heroine, Kesavdas, on the whole, presents her as a svakiya heroine, the one to whom Krishna belongs wholeheartedly. If she is separated from him, it is only temporarily, for as archetypal lovers they are connected forever. The suggestion that Radha is Krishna's rightful wife is clearly articulated in the first chapter in the exemplary verse for the manifest form of union. Here, Kesavdas compares the union of Radha and Krishna with that of Sita and Rama. Kesavdas compares the union of Radha and Krishna with that of Sita and Rama:
Once Krishna sat with Radha on the same couch with pleasure, and in the mirror held, as he looked to watch the splendor of her face, his eyes filled with tears. In her reflections he saw the red gem on her forehead which seemed to glow like fire, reminding him of Sita sitting in fire, adorned, with her husband's leave.
— Kesavdas, Rasikapriya (I,22)
In this verse, Kesavdas connects Radha with Krishna as his legitimate wife not only in this lifetime but even in the previous one. Chapter 3 and verse 34 of Rasikapriya, depicted Radha as Madhya arudhayovana nayika and is described as a beautiful woman who looks like a heavenly damsel, with perfect features (forehead like the half moon, arches like a perfect bow, etc.), golden body, and a beautiful body fragrance. In chapter 3, verse 38, one attendant talks to another:
I have seen such an amazingly beautiful gopi, that I wonder if she really is a cowherdess ! Such splendor shone from her body that my eyes remained transfixed on her! No other beautiful women appeal any more; having seen her delicate walk once, I see the beauty of all three worlds. Who could be the husband of such a beauty, Kamadeva or Kalanidhi [moon]? No, Krishna himself.
— Kesavdasa, Rasikapriya (III, 38)
In chapter 3, verse 38, Radha is very specifically described as the wife of Krishna. In most of the verses, whenever she is mentioned by name, she is usually seen as a virtuous court lady with utmost beauty and charm. Her husband Krishna is said to be in control of her love. Kesavdasa in Rasikapriya mentioned that while it is common to see women devoted to their husbands but it is not as common to see a husband as Krishna who is so devoted to his wife Radha and considering her as goddess.(VII, 6)[132] In Sanskrit scripture Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Radha and Krishna are understood to be eternally related to each other as husband and wife validating their Svakiya relationship.[56] The celebrated poets of Radha Vallabh Sampradaya, Dhruva Dasa and Rupalji composed "Vyahulau Utsav ke Pad" or "Marriage Festival songs" which describe the eternal wedding of Radha and Krishna with praise and adulation.[133] In the Indian state of Maharashtra, Radha is often identified as Rahi, a regional form of Radha who is worshiped as the married consort of Vithoba, a regional form of Krishna.[134][135]
A devotee reading inside dedicated to Radha-Krishna Lalji Temple, Kalna, West Bengal
Friedhelm Hardy singles out such an offshoot of Krishnaism as Radha-centered stream Radhaism.[136] The main representative of which is the Radha Vallabh Sampradaya (lit. "consort of Radha"), where goddess Radha is worshipped as the supreme deity, and Krishna is in a subordinate position.[137][24]
During the 18th century at Kolkata existed the Sakhībhāvakas community, whose members used to wear female dresses in order to identify themselves with the gopis, companions of Radha.[136]
Since 15th century in Bengal and Assam flourished TantricVaishnava-Sahajiya tradition with related to it Bauls, where Krishna is the inner divine aspect of man and Radha is the aspect of woman, what incorporated into their specific sexual Maithuna ritual.[143][144]
Radha's connection to Krishna is of two types: svakiya-rasa (married relationship) and parakiya-rasa (a relationship signified with eternal mental "love"). The Gaudiya tradition focuses upon parakiya-rasa as the highest form of love, wherein Radha and Krishna share thoughts even through separation. The love the gopis feel for Krishna is also described in this esoteric manner as the highest platform of spontaneous love of God, and not of a sexual nature.[145]
Hymns
Radha Krishna painting inspired by Gita Govinda
List of prayers and hymns dedicated to Radha are:
Gita Govinda: This 12th century work of Jayadeva is dedicated to both Radha and Krishna. Gita Govinda is still the part of temple songs of Jagannath Temple, Puri.[146]
Lakshmi Gayatri Mantra: "Samuddhrtayai vidmahe Vishnunaikena dhimahi | tan no Radha prachodaydt || " (We think about her whom Vishnu himself supports, we meditate on her. Then, let Radha inspire us). The mantra is mentioned in Linga Purana (48.13) and invokes Lakshmi through Radha.[34]
Shri Radha Saharsnama Strotam: The prayer has more than 1000 names of Radha and is part of the Sanskrit scripture Narada Panchratra.[147]
Radha Kripa Kataksh Strotam: This is the most famous stotra in Vrindavana. It is written in Ūrdhvāmnāya-tantra and is believed to be spoken by Śiva to Parvati. The prayer is dedicated to Radha and has total 19 verses.[148][149]
Radhashtami, also called Radha Jayanti is celebrated as the appearance anniversary of Radha. In the Hindu calendar, Radhashtami is observed annually in the month of the Bhadra, 15 days after Krishna Janmashtami, the birth anniversary of Krishna, which suggests that Radha is very much an aspect of the cultural-religious faith system governing social life.[155] The festival is celebrated with great enthusiasm and fervor especially in the Braj region. The festivities include fasting till afternoon (12 pm), abhishek and aarti of Radharani, offering her flowers, sweets and food items, singing songs, dancing and prayers dedicated to Radha.[156] The Radha Rani Temple in Barsana host this festival in a grand manner as Basana is also considered as the birthplace of Radha. Apart from Barsana, this festival is celebrated in nearly all the temples of Vrindavan and ISKCON temples across the world as it is one of the major festival for many Vaishnavism sections.[157]
Krishna Celebrates Holi with Radha and the Gopis by Nihal Chand, Kishangarh, 1750-60
Holi, one of the major Hindu festival, also called festival of love and festival of colors also celebrates the divine and eternal love of Radha and Krishna. Mathura and Vrindavan are known for their Holi celebrations. According to popular legend associated with Radha Krishna, as a child, Krishna would cry to his mother Yashoda about Radha being fair while he had a dark complexion. His mother then advised him to smear colour of his choice on Radha's face, thus giving birth to Braj ki Holi. It is said that every year, Lord Krishna would travel from his village Nandgaon to Goddess Radha's village Barsana, where Radha and the gopis would playfully beat him with sticks.[158][159] In present times, Holi celebrations in Barsana begin one week before the actual date of the festival, moving to Nandgaon the next day. In Mathura and Vrindavan, the festival is celebrated in different forms like Lathmar Holi in Barsana and Nandgaon, where sticks are used to create playful beats, to which young men and women dance; Phoolon wali Holi in Gulaal Kund near the Govardhan Hill, during which Ras Leela is performed and Holi is played with colourful flowers and Widow's Holi in Vrindavan.[160]
Sharad Purnima refers to the full moon of the autumn season. On this day, devotees celebrate Krishna performing a beautiful dance called "rasa lila" with Radha and the gopis—the cowherd damsels of Vrindavan.[161] On this day, Radha Krishna in temples are dressed in white outfits and are adorned with flower garlands and glittering ornaments.[162]
In Vaishnavism, the occasion of Kartik Purnima is considered as the most auspicious day to worship goddess Radha. According to Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Krishna also worshiped Radha on this day.[87] In Radha Krishna temples, sacred vow is observed throughout the Karthik month and performances of Raslila are organized to celebrate this festival.[163]
In Shaktism
In Shaktism section of Hinduism, Radha becomes an independent goddess Prakriti-Padmini, who is the form of goddess Tripura Sundari while her consort Krishna is associated with the masculine form of goddess Kali. Tantric text Radha Tantra, portrayed Radha as the Shakta Radha who is also the spiritual mentor of Krishna.[164][165][166][167] In Shaktism, the Ashtasakhis of Radha Krishna are considered as the embodiment of the Ashta Siddhis which are Aṇimā, Mahima, Garima, Laghima, Prāpti, Prākāmya, Iṣiṭva, and Vaśitva.[168]
Influence
Radha's story has inspired many paintings. Above: Radha in the moonlight by Raja Ravi Varma, 1890.
Paintings
Radha and Krishna have inspired many forms of performance arts and literary works.[29][26] Over the centuries, their love has been portrayed in thousands of exquisite paintings which depicts the lover in separation and union, longing and abandonment.[29][169]
Patta chitra, is one of the typical regional arts of the coastal state of Orissa. In this type of painting, Krishna is depicted in blue or black color and is usually accompanied by his fiancée Radha.[170] Rajasthani art emerged as an amalgamation of folk art with conventional and canonical ethos. Krishna and Radha have been the pivotal figures in Rajasthani miniature paintings. Their love has been delineated aesthetically in this composition.[171] In Pahari paintings, often the nayaka (hero) is depicted as Krishna and the nayika (heroine) is depicted as Radha. The legend of Krishna and Radha and their love provided rich material to Pahari painters in general and to the artists of Garhwal in particular.[172] The central theme of Kangra painting is love inspired by Rasikapriya, popular poetic work of Keshavdasa. A closely related theme of this art is lover looking at his beloved who is unaware of his presence. Thus, Krishna is shown watching Radha who is unaware of his presence.[173] In Radha and Krishna, Kangra artists discovered highest model of loving couple. The Radha-Krishna theme also served their devotional purpose and provided an inherent symbolism.[82]Madhubani paintings are charismatic art of Bihar. Madhubani paintings are mostly based on religion and mythology. In the paintings, Hindu Gods like Radha-Krishna and Shiva-Parvati are in center. Krishna and Radha are one of the favorite subject in Rajput paintings because they portrayed a theme that symbolized the desire of the soul to be united by god. In Rajput paintings, Radha is always dressed in more elegant way. She was adorned with ornaments and is often depicted holding a white garland when enthroned next to Krishna.[83] The Chamba paintings of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab often depicts romantic ambiances of rainy season with Radha Krishna as the lead couple.[82]
Patta Chitra painting depicting love story of Radha and Krishna.
Rajasthani Painting with a love theme where Radha is getting ready and Krishna admires her silently.
Pahari painting of Radha offering bowl of curd to Krishna.
Kangra painting, Radha dressed as Krishna and Krishna dressed as Radha.
Rajput painting (1760), Radha Krishna with gopis.
Kishangarh painting, Radha Krishna in pavilion.
Radha- Krishna, Kalighat Painting
Dance forms
The most famous Indian classical dance Manipuri Raas Leela was first introduced by King Bhagyachandra around 1779. Inspired by Radha Krishna's raslila, the king introduced three forms of rasa dance—Maha rasa, Kunj rasa and Basant rasa. Later two more forms of rasa—Nitya rasa and Deba rasa was added by successive kings in the art and culture of Manipur. In these dance forms, the dancers portray the role of Radha, Krishna and gopis. The dance forms are still prevalent in the state of Manipur and are performed on stage as well as on the auspicious occasions like Kartik Purnima and Sharad Purnima (full moon nights).[174][175]
Artists depicting Radha Krishna's love story through Manipuri classical dance Raslila.
Another Indian classical dance form, Kathakali was also influenced by Vaishnavism and Radha Krishna based Gita Govinda tradition which along with other factors contributed in the evolution of this dance form.[176] The predominant theme of North Indian Kathak dancing lies in the fleeting appearances and longer stories of Radha and Krishna. The sacred love of Krishna and his beloved Radha, are woven into all aspects of the Kathak dance and is clearly visible during the discussions of the music, costumes and finally the role of the Kathak dancer.[177]
Ashtapadis of Gita Govinda are also enacted in contemporary classical Odissi dance form.[178] This dance form was originated in the temples. It is centered on the celestial love of Krishna and Radha. At one time, it was performed by the Devadasis but now it has spread out to the homes and cultural institutions.[179]
Music
Rasiya is a popular genre of Indian folk music from Braj region, Uttar Pradesh. It is commonly played and performed during the festivities in the villages and temples of Braj area.[180] The traditional songs of Rasiya are based on the divine portrayal and love of Radha and Krishna. They are frequently written from the female perspective of Radha and portray Krishna and his flirtation with her.[181][182]
Culture
The residents of Braj region still greet each other with salutations like "Radhe Radhe", "Jai Shri Radhe" and "Radhe Shyam", directing their mind to Radha and ultimate relationship she shares with Krishna. The image of Krishna rarely appears without Radha by his side in the temples of Vrindavan. It is not the Krishna who is worshiped, but Radha and Krishna together are worshiped.[183]
In culture of Odisha, Krishna is the cultural hero and his form Jagannath, is the symbol of Oriya pride. His consort Radha is celebrated as the energy of Krishna and symbolically the energy of the cosmos. She is considered as the power of joy, the hladini shakti of Krishna and is often identified with both Durga and Mahakali, the bright and dark forms of the cosmic energy. Krishna and Radha have entered the Oriya psyche and have inspired the mythic imagination of the Oriya poets in a big way. For the conscious and the informed, Krishna and Radha are the Universe and its harmony, the Energy and its joyful articulation, the cosmic dance and its rhythmic balance.[155]
In Indian culture, Radha serve as an exemplary model of female-neutral subjectivity for all persons—an active, non-substantial, shared and strong self that rationally embrace their (religious) passions.[184]
In popular culture
Films
In the 1933 Bengali film Radha Krishna, Radha was portrayed by Duniyabala.[185]
Radha and Krishna are the focus of temples in the Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabhacharya, Chandidas, and other traditions of Vaishnavism.[140] Radha is typically shown standing immediately next to Krishna.[140] Some of the important Radha Krishna temples are:
Guru Gobind Singh, in his Dasam Grantha, describes Radha the sukl bhis rika thus: "Radhika went out in the light of the white soft moon, wearing a white robe to meet her Lord. It was white everywhere and hidden in it, she appeared like the light itself in search of Him".[173]
Radha is mentioned in many Jain commentaries including the popular Venisamhara by Narayana Bhatta, and Dhvanyaloka by Anandavardhana, written in 7th century. Jain scholars like Somadeva Suri and Vikram Bhatta continued mentioning Radha between 9th and 12th centuries in their literary works.[55][34]
^Parakiya rasa depicts the relationship which is free from any kind of favors, expectations, rules and social recognition. It is only based on the selfless form of love and is often said to be the highest kind of relationship one can have with God. Svakiya rasa depicts the marital relationship which works according to the social rules and norms.
^According to Garga Samhita and Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Radha was cursed by Sridama in Goloka to bear 100 years of separation from Krishna when they descended on Earth.
References
Citations
^ abDiana Dimitrova (2018). Divinizing in South Asian Traditions. Routledge. ISBN978-0-8153-5781-0. Radha is mentioned as the personification of the Mūlaprakriti, the 'Root nature, that original seed from which all material forms evolvedCite error: The named reference "Diana Dimitrova 2018" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^Vemsani 2016, p. 222: "The Devibhagvata purana and Padma purana describe Radha's cosmological role as Prakriti and Shakti"
^David R. Kinsley (1986). Hindu Goddesses. Motilala Banarsidass. p. 91. ISBN978-81-208-0394-7. Radha is called mother of the world and Krishna father of the world
^Edwin Francis Bryant (2007). Krishna: A Sourcebook. SUNY Press. p. 443. ISBN978-0-19-803400-1. Significant manifestation of the feminine in Vaishnavism...the supreme goddess Radha, the favorite gopi of Krishna
^Roy C Amore (1976). "Religion in India". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 14 (2): 366. Radha as Prakriti comes to supreme prominence, assuming epithets of transcendence - Brahmasvarupa, Nirguna...
^ abSteward, David S. (1980). "DOCTORAL DISSERTATION ABSTRACTS IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 1978–79". Religious Education. 75 (4): 474–494. doi:10.1080/0034408800750410. ISSN0034-4087.
^Farquhar, J. N. (1926). "The Narada Pancharatra". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (3): 492–495. ISSN0035-869X. JSTOR25221011.
^Bhattacharya, Sunil Kumar (1996). Krishna-cult in Indian Art. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 13. ISBN978-81-7533-001-6. Radha is the eternal consort and wedded wife of Krishna, who lives forever with him in Goloka.
^Jash, Pranabananda (1979). "Radha-Madhava Sub-Sect in Eastern India". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 40: 177–184. ISSN2249-1937. JSTOR44141958.
^Srinivasan, K.S.; Ramanujan, A.K. (1982). "What is Indian Literature?". Indian Literature. 25 (4): 5–15. ISSN0019-5804. JSTOR24158041.
^"gp-durvasas". www.salagram.net. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
^Fahy, John (23 July 2018). "The Constructive Ambiguity of Vedic Culture in ISKCON Mayapur". The Journal of Hindu Studies. 11 (3): 234–259. doi:10.1093/jhs/hiy008. ISSN1756-4255.
^Pintchman, Tracy (8 April 2015). Rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition, The. State University of New York Press. p. 159. ISBN978-1-4384-1618-2. Radha is said to be produced from half of Krishna's body and she manifest as Mulaprakriti Isvari, the Primordial Goddess Prakriti.
^Pande, Dr Suruchi (August 2008). "Vithoba of Pandharpur"(PDF). Prabuddha Bharata. 113: 447. Archived from the original(PDF) on 21 December 2008 – via Wayback Machine.
^Kinsley, D. (2010). "Without Krsna There Is No Song". History of Religions. 12 (2): 149. doi:10.1086/462672. S2CID161297914. Retrieved 3 May 2008. "Nimbarka seems to have been the first well-known religious leader to regard Radha as central to his worship (thirteenth century)"
^Yudit Greenberg, Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions, Volume 1, ISBN978-1851099801, p. 212
^McKim Marriott (2006). John Stratton Hawley and Vasudha Narayanan (ed.). The Life of Hinduism. University of California Press. p. 102. ISBN978-0-520-24914-1., Quote: "Holi, he said with a beatific sigh, is the Festival of Love!"
^Kallir, Jane (1982). "The Folk Art Tradition: Naive Painting in Europe and The United States". American Art Journal. 14 (4): 88. doi:10.2307/1594322. ISSN0002-7359. JSTOR1594322.
^Frazier, Jessica (2010), Anderson, Pamela Sue (ed.), "Becoming the Goddess: Female Subjectivity and the Passion of the Goddess Radha", New Topics in Feminist Philosophy of Religion: Contestations and Transcendence Incarnate, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 199–215, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6833-1_13, ISBN978-1-4020-6833-1
Lochtefeld, James G. (2002). "Radha". The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N–Z. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 542. ISBN978-0-8239-3180-4.
Majumdar, Asoke Kumar (July–October 1955). "A Note on the Development of Radha Cult". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 36 (3/4): 231–257. JSTOR44082959.
Mishra, Baba (1999). "Radha and her contour in Orissan culture". In Orissan history, culture and archaeology. In Felicitation of Prof. P.K. Mishra. Ed. by S. Pradhan. (Reconstructing Indian History & Culture 16). New Delhi. pp. 243–259.
Pauwels, Heidi R.M. (1996). "The Great Goddess and Fulfilment in Love: Rādhā Seen Through a Sixteenth-Century Lens". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 59 (1). Cambridge University Press: 29–43. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00028548. JSTOR619389. S2CID162315694.
Pradhan, Shrikant (2008) [2008–2009]. "A Unique Image of "Ardharadhavenudharamurti": or "Ardhanari Krishna"". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 68/69: 207–213. JSTOR42931207.
Rosenstein, Ludmila L. (1997). "The Devotional Poetry of Svami Haridas". A Study of Early Braj Bhasa Verse. Groningen Oriental Studies, 12. Groningen: Egbert Forsten.
Rosenstein, Lucy (1998). "The Rādhāvallabha and the Haridāsā Samprādayas: A Comparison". Journal of Vaishnava Studies. 7 (1): 5–18.
Bahl, Kali C. "The Hindi 'Riti' Tradition and the 'Rasikapriya' of Keshavdasa: An Introductory Review". Journal of South Asian Literature, vol. 10, no. 1, 1974, pp. 1–38. JSTOR40871705.
Chakravorty, Pallabi, and Nilanjana Gupta, eds. (2012). Swayed by Love: Dance in the Vaishnava Temple Imagery of Bengal. Routledge India. doi:10.4324/9780203150450. ISBN978-0-203-15045-0.
Das, Biswarup. "Development of Radha-Krishna Cult in Orissa". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 39, 1978, pp. 539–544. JSTOR44139393.
Jash, Pranabananda. "Radha-Madhava Sub-Sect in Eastern India". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 40, 1979, pp. 177–184, JSTOR44141958.
External links
Listen to this article (5 minutes)
This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 13 November 2016 (2016-11-13), and does not reflect subsequent edits.
Krabuku siau Status konservasi Kritis (IUCN 3.1)[1] Klasifikasi ilmiah Kerajaan: Animalia Filum: Chordata Kelas: Mammalia Ordo: Primata Famili: Tarsiidae Genus: Tarsius Spesies: T. tumpara Nama binomial Tarsius tumparaShekelle, Groves, Merker, & Supriatna, 2008 Krabuku tumpara, Krabuku siau, atau tumpara (Tarsius tumpara) adalah primata nokturnal dalam famili Tarsiidae. Primata ini endemik di Pulau Siau, Kabupaten Kepulauan Sitaro. Nama tumpara merupakan nama yang digun...
Luvinate commune di Italia Tempat Negara berdaulatItaliaRegion di ItaliaLombardyProvinsi di ItaliaProvinsi Varese NegaraItalia Ibu kotaLuvinate PendudukTotal1.305 (2023 )GeografiLuas wilayah4,07 km² [convert: unit tak dikenal]Ketinggian425 m Berbatasan denganBarasso Varese Casciago Castello Cabiaglio SejarahSanto pelindungHippolitus dari Roma Informasi tambahanKode pos21020 Zona waktuUTC+1 UTC+2 Kode telepon0332 ID ISTAT012093 Kode kadaster ItaliaE769 Lain-lainSitus webLaman resmi...
Branch of the Russian Aerospace Forces Russian Space ForcesКосмические войска РоссииKosmicheskie voyska RossiiEmblem of the Russian Space ForcesActive1992–19972001–20111 August 2015 – presentCountry RussiaTypeSpace forceRoleSpace warfarePart of Russian Aerospace ForcesMarch14 минут до старта (14 Minutes Until Start, official march)Anniversaries4 October (Space Forces Day)CommandersCommander-in-Chief of the Aerospace Forces Sergei Surovi...
Ahmed Hossam Ahmed Hossam Hussein Abdelhamid (bahasa Arab: أحمد حسام) (lahir 23 Februari 1983; akrab dipanggil Mido) adalah seorang pemain sepak bola asal Mesir. Posisinya adalah penyerang. Sejak tahun 2007 ia membela Middlesbrough di Liga Utama Inggris. Ia dikenal kuat dalam memperebutkan bola-bola di udara namun juga merupakan pemain yang temperamental. Pada tahun 2002 ia terpilih sebagai Pemain Remaja Terbaik Afrika. Setahun sebelumnya ia mulai dipanggil ke tim nasional sepak bola ...
This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: Mexicans in Oklahoma – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2024) Part of a series onChicanos and Mexican Americans Terms Identity Chola/o La Raza Pachuca Pachuco Pinta/o Xicanx Concepts Anti-Mexican sentiment History Early-American Per...
Andreas Beikirch. Andreas Beikirch (born 29 March 1970 in Hilden, North Rhine-Westphalia) is a German professional racing cyclist. Career wins 1988 - World Championship, Track, Points race, Juniors 1990 - Nouméa, Six Days (FRA) 1996 - Aalsmeer (NED) 1999 - Stage 3 Niedersachsen Rundfahrt, Soltau (GER) 1999 - Stage 1 Tour de Beauce, Saint-Georges (CAN) 2000 - National Championship, Track, Madison, Elite, Germany (GER) 2000 - Erlangen (GER) 2001 - Köln-Nippes (GER) 2001 - Kaarst-Büttgen (GER...
Gruppo Calcio Alfa RomeoCalcio Segni distintivi Uniformi di gara Casa Trasferta Colori sociali Rosso Dati societari Città Milano Nazione Italia Confederazione FIFA Federazione FIGC Fondazione 1936 Scioglimento1942 Stadio Campo Sportivo Alfa Romeo(1500 posti) Palmarès Si invita a seguire il modello di voce Il Gruppo Calcio Alfa Romeo è stata una società calcistica italiana con sede a Milano.[1] Indice 1 Storia 2 Cronistoria 3 Strutture 3.1 Stadio 4 Allenatori e presidenti 5 Statis...
Margarita Zimmermann Margarita Zimmermann (born October 3, 1942) is an Argentine mezzo-soprano, particularly associated with the Italian and French repertories. Life and career Born in Hurlingham, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, she made her debut as a recitalist at the Teatro Colón of her native city. She then left for Europe, where she studied notably with Gérard Souzay. She made her European debut at La Monnaie in Brussels, as Cherubino in Le nozze di Figaro, in 1977. During the same s...
Cargo ship built in Denmark in World War 2 Gotenland History Name 1942: Gotenland 1945: Hopeville 1967: Oinoussian Hope 1968: Esperanza Owner 1942: Kriegsmarine 1945: Skibs-A/S Steinstad 1957: Skibs-A/S Siljestad 1967: Argyros Cia SA Operator 1942: Norddeutscher Lloyd 1945: A. F. Klaveness & Co 1967: Panagiotis A Lemos & Co Ltd Port of registry 1942: 1945: Oslo 1967: Piraeus BuilderBurmeister & Wain, Copenhagen Laid down1940 CompletedNovember 1942 Identification 1945: call sign LL...
Dutch language edition of Wikipedia Dutch WikipediaScreenshot Main page of the Dutch Wikipedia in April 2021Type of siteOnline encyclopediaAvailable inDutchHeadquartersMiami, FloridaOwnerWikimedia FoundationCreated byDutch Wikipedia communityURLnl.wikipedia.orgCommercialNoRegistrationOptionalLaunched19 June 2001; 22 years ago (2001-06-19) The Dutch Wikipedia (Dutch: Nederlandstalige Wikipedia) is the Dutch-language edition of the free online encyclopedia, Wikipedia...
Yemen criminal, currently imprisoned in Estonia Ahmed Abdul QaderGuantanamo captive Akhmed Abdul Qadir wearing the white uniform issued to compliant captives.Arrested2001SanaaPakistan authoritiesReleased2015-01-14EstoniaCitizenshipYemenDetained at GuantanamoOther name(s) Akhmed Abdul Qadir Ahmad Abdel Qader Ahmad Hasan Abu Bakr al-Hadrami al-Mukallawi al-Muthana Moussab al-Yemeni Asifa Abdel Rahman ISN690Charge(s)extrajudicial detention Ahmed Abdul Qader is a citizen of Yemen, who ...
British peer The Earl of Gosford in 1897, dressed as Robert de la Marck. Archibald Brabazon Sparrow Acheson, 4th Earl of Gosford, KP (19 August 1841[1] – 11 April 1922) was a British peer. The son of Archibald Acheson, 3rd Earl of Gosford, he was born at Worlingham Hall, Suffolk,[2] in 1841, and educated at Harrow School; and succeeded to the earldom upon the death of his father in 1864.[3] He was Lord of the Bedchamber to Edward VII, Prince of Wales between 1886 and...
Pierre-Denis, Comte de Peyronnet Pierre-Denis, comte de Peyronnet (9 October 1778, in Bordeaux – 2 January 1854) was the president of the Bordeaux Court in France in 1815, Minister of Justice from 1821 to 1828 and four times Minister of Interior. Opposed to Napoleon's Empire, he rallied himself to the Bourbons during the Restoration. An Ultra-royalist, he supported the Anti-Sacrilege Act, the 1827 law restricting press freedom, and the loi du droit d'aînesse. Life The Count of Peyronnet's...
Australian racing driver Dylan O'KeeffeNationality AustralianBorn (1998-02-04) 4 February 1998 (age 26)Melbourne, VictoriaTCR Australia Touring Car Series careerCurrent teamAshley Seward MotorsportRacing licence FIA SilverCar number11Former teamsGarry Rogers MotorsportStarts66Wins5Podiums15Poles2Best finish5th in 2019Previous series20152016-182019Porsche GT3 Cup Challenge AustraliaPorsche Carrera Cup Australia Championship Supercars Championship careerCar number31 (Endurance race co...
إمبراطورية شونغا الأرض والسكان إحداثيات 25°35′32″N 85°08′29″E / 25.5923°N 85.1413°E / 25.5923; 85.1413 عاصمة باتاليبوترا [لغات أخرى] اللغة الرسمية السنسكريتية الحكم التأسيس والسيادة التاريخ تاريخ التأسيس 185 ق.م وسيط property غير متوفر. تعديل مصدري - تعديل ...
Chemical compound EugenodilolClinical dataATC codeNoneIdentifiers IUPAC name 1-(4-Allyl-2-methoxyphenoxy)-3-{[2-(2-methoxyphenoxy)ethyl]amino}-2-propanol PubChem CID9930145ChemSpider8105776CompTox Dashboard (EPA)DTXSID801031595 Chemical and physical dataFormulaC22H29NO5Molar mass387.476 g·mol−13D model (JSmol)Interactive image SMILES O(c1ccc(cc1OC)C\C=C)CC(O)CNCCOc2ccccc2OC InChI InChI=1S/C22H29NO5/c1-4-7-17-10-11-21(22(14-17)26-3)28-16-18(24)15-23-12-13-27-20-9-6-5-8-19(20)25-2/h4-6,...
У этого топонима есть и другие значения, см. Ходыри. ДеревняХодыри 57°20′15″ с. ш. 51°29′30″ в. д.HGЯO Страна Россия Субъект Федерации Удмуртская Республика Муниципальный округ Сюмсинский История и география Высота центра 161 м Население Население →4[1] чело�...
Catholic holy order Part of a series on theHierarchy of theCatholic ChurchSaint Peter Ecclesiastical titles (order of precedence) Pope Pope Emeritus Cardinal Cardinal Vicar Crown Prince Protector Moderator of the curia Chaplain of His Holiness Papal legate Papal majordomo Apostolic nuncio Apostolic delegate Apostolic Syndic Apostolic visitor Vicar apostolic Apostolic exarch Apostolic prefect Assistant to the papal throne Eparch Metropolitan Patriarch Catholicos Bishop Archbishop Bishop emerit...
.jpg)
.JPG)
_(11936923714).jpg)
_Krishna_Celebrates_Holi_with_Radha_and_the_Gopis_1750-60_Boston_MFA.jpg)
.jpg)
_(9471201137).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
