This article is about the diverse theistic views within Hinduism. For specific deities, see Hindu deities.
Deities Vishnu, Lakshmi, Shiva, Parvati and Ganesha. These deities have distinct and complex personalities, yet are often viewed as aspects of and are worshipped as incarnations of the same Ultimate Reality called Brahman.[1][note 1]
Henotheism was the term used by scholars such as Max Müller to describe the theology of Vedic religion.[32][33] Müller noted that the hymns of the Rigveda, the oldest scripture of Hinduism, mention many deities, but praises them successively as the "one ultimate, supreme God" (called saccidānanda in some traditions), alternatively as "one supreme Goddess",[34] thereby asserting that the essence of the deities was unitary (ekam), and the deities were nothing but pluralistic manifestations of the same concept of the divine (God).[33][35][36]
The idea that there can be and are plural perspectives for the same divine or spiritual principle repeats in the Vedic texts. For example, other than hymn 1.164 with this teaching,[30] the more ancient hymn 5.3 of the Rigveda states:
You at your birth are Varuna, O Agni.
When you are kindled, you are Mitra.
In you, O son of strength, all gods are centered.
You are Indra to the mortal who brings oblation.
You are Aryaman, when you are regarded as having
the mysterious names of maidens, O Self-sustainer.
Related terms to henotheism are monolatrism and kathenotheism.[39] The latter term is an extension of "henotheism", from καθ' ἕνα θεόν (kath' hena theon) — "one god at a time".[40] Henotheism refers to a pluralistic theology wherein different deities are viewed to be of a unitary, equivalent divine essence.[33] Some scholars prefer the term monolatry to henotheism, to discuss religions where a single god is central, but the existence or the position of other gods is not denied.[39][36] Another term related to henotheism is "equitheism", referring to the belief that all gods are equal.[41]
"Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen?"
The Vedic era conceptualization of the divine or the One, states Jeaneane Fowler, is more abstract than a monotheistic God, it is the Reality behind and of the phenomenal universe.[45] The Vedic hymns treat it as "limitless, indescribable, absolute principle", thus the Vedic divine is something of a panentheism rather than simple henotheism.[45]
In late Vedic era, around the start of Upanishadic age (c. 800 BCE), theosophical speculations emerge that develop concepts which scholars variously call nondualism or monism, as well as forms of non-theism and pantheism.[45][46][47] An example of the questioning of the concept of God, in addition to henotheistic hymns found therein, are in later portions of the Rigveda, such as the Nasadiya Sukta.[48]
Hinduism calls the metaphysical absolute concept as Brahman, incorporating within it the transcendent and immanent reality.[49][50][51] Different schools of thought interpret Brahman as either personal, impersonal or transpersonal. Ishwar Chandra Sharma describes it as "Absolute Reality, beyond all dualities of existence and non-existence, light and darkness, and of time, space and cause".[52]
Influential ancient and medieval Hindu philosophers, states philosophy professor Roy Perrett, teach their spiritual ideas with a world created ex nihilo and "effectively manage without God altogether".[53] In Hindu philosophy, there are many different schools.[54] Its non-theist traditions such as Samkhya, early Nyaya, Mimamsa and many within Vedanta such as Advaita do not posit the existence of an almighty, omnipotent, omniscient, omnibenevolent God (monotheistic God), while its theistic traditions posit a personal God left to the choice of the Hindu. The major schools of Hindu philosophy explain morality and the nature of existence through the karma and samsara doctrines, as in other Indian religions.[55][56][57]
Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief in a single creator God and the lack of belief in any other Creator.[58][59] Different sects of Hinduism may or may not posit or require such a belief, as religion is considered a personal belief in Hinduism and followers are free to choose the different interpretations within the framework of karma and samsara. Many forms of Hinduism believe in a type of monotheistic God, such as Krishnaism with polymorphic theism, some schools of Vedanta, and Arya Samaj.[60][61][62]
Advaita Vedanta, for instance, espouses monism, and holds Brahman to be unchanging and undifferentiated from reality. Brahman is therefore undifferentiated from the individual self, or Atman.[15][63] The concept is thought by some, such as David Adams Leeming and Gavin Flood, to resemble monotheistic conceptions of god to some degree, since all other since are believed to be manifestations of Brahman.[15][64]
Several medieval Muslim scholars, such as al-Biruni and Amir Khusrau, described Hinduism as fundamentally monotheistic in nature, and attributed polytheistic worship to a lack of education.[65]
Madhvacharya's monotheistic God
Madhvacharya (1238–1317 CE) developed the Dvaita theology wherein Vishnu was presented as a monotheistic God, similar to major world religions.[66][67] His writings led some, such as George Abraham Grierson, to suggest he was influenced by Christianity.[68] However, modern scholarship rules out the influence of Christianity on Madhvacharya,[68][69] as there is no evidence that there ever was a Christian settlement where Madhvacharya grew up and lived, or that there was a sharing or discussion of ideas between someone with knowledge of the Bible and Christian narratives, and him.[70] Furthermore, many adherents consider the similarities to be superficial and insubstantial; for example, Madhvacharya postulates three co-eternal fundamental realities, consisting of Supreme Being (Vishnu or paramatman), individual Self (jīvātman), and inanimate matter.[71]
Madhvacharya was misperceived and misrepresented by both Christian missionaries and Hindu writers during the colonial era scholarship.[72][70] The similarities in the primacy of one God, dualism and distinction between man and God, devotion to God, the son of God as the intermediary, predestination, the role of grace in salvation, as well as the similarities in the legends of miracles in Christianity and Madhvacharya's Dvaita tradition fed these stories.[72][70] Among Christian writers, G. A. Grierson creatively asserted that Madhva's ideas evidently were "borrowed from Christianity, quite possibly promulgated as a rival to the central doctrine of that faith".[73] Among Hindu writers, according to Sarma, S. C. Vasu creatively translated Madhvacharya's works to identify Madhvacharya with Christ, rather than compare their ideas.[74]
Many traditions within Hinduism share the Vedic idea of a metaphysical ultimate reality and truth called Brahman. According to Jan Gonda, Brahman denoted the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas" in the earliest Vedic texts. The early Vedic religious understanding of Brahman underwent a series of abstractions in the Hindu scriptures that followed the Vedic scriptures. These scriptures would reveal a vast body of insights into the nature of Brahman as originally revealed in the Vedas. These Hindu traditions that emerged from or identified with the Vedic scriptures and that maintained the notion of a metaphysical ultimate reality would identify that ultimate reality as Brahman. Hindu adherents to these traditions within Hinduism revere Hindu deities and, indeed, all of existence, as aspects of the Brahman.[75][76] The deities in Hinduism are not considered to be almighty, omnipotent, omniscient and omnibenevolent, and spirituality is considered to be seeking the ultimate truth that is possible by a number of paths.[77][78][79] Like other Indian religions, in Hinduism, deities are born, they live and they die in every kalpa (eon, cycle of existence).[80]
In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe.[81][82][83] In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists.[82][84][85] It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes.[81][86][87] Brahman as a metaphysical concept is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe.[81][88]
Brahman is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen, as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world".[89] Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads.[90] The Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle.[91] In the Upanishads, it has been variously described as Sat-cit-ānanda (truth-consciousness-bliss)[92][93] and as the unchanging, permanent, highest reality.[86][94][note 2][note 3]
Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of Atman (Self),[90][97]personal,[note 4]impersonal[note 5] or Para Brahman,[note 6] or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.[98] In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being, and therein it shares conceptual framework of God in major world religions.[85][66][99] In non-dual schools of Hinduism such as the monistAdvaita Vedanta, Brahman is identical to the Atman, Brahman is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.[87][100][101]
The Upanishads contain several mahā-vākyas or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman:[102]
While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of Brahman and Atman, they also expound on Brahman as saguna Brahman—the Brahman with attributes, and nirguna Brahman—the Brahman without attributes.[110] The nirguna Brahman is the Brahman as it really is, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing nirguna Brahman, but the Hinduism schools declare saguna Brahman to be ultimately illusory.[111] The concept of the saguna Brahman, such as in the form of avatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.[111]
The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman—Nirguna and Saguna.[112]Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.[113]Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.[113] The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.[112][114] It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives: one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.[114]Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge.[112]Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love.[112] In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.[114]
Nirguna and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the Nirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".[115] Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman.[115] These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.[112]
The Yogasutras of Patanjali use the term Ishvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutra's release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara? These commentaries range from defining Isvara from a "personal god" to "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual".[116][117] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[118]
Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)",[119]
This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics of Isvara as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances created by past or one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions/intentions (आशय, ashaya).[120][121]
Among various Bhakti path practicing sects of Hinduism, which built upon the Yoga school of Hinduism, Isvara only means a specific deity such as Shiva.
Svayam Bhagavan, a Sanskrit theological term, is the concept of absolute representation of the monotheistic God as Bhagavan himself within Hinduism. The theological interpretation of svayam bhagavān differs with each tradition and the translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "Bhagavan Himself" or "directly Bhagavan."[122] Earlier commentators such as Madhvacharya translated the term Svayam Bhagavan as "he who has bhagavatta"; meaning "he who has the quality of possessing all good qualities".[123] The term is seldom used to refer to other forms of Krishna and Vishnu within the context of certain religious texts such as the Bhagavata Purana, and also within other sects of Vaishnavism.
The theological interpretation of Svayam Bhagavān differs with each tradition and the literal translation of the term has been understood in several distinct ways. Translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "Bhagavan Himself" or "directly Bhagavan".[122] Others have translated it simply as "the Lord Himself".[124]
Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition often translates it within its perspective as primeval Lord or original Personality of Godhead, but also considers the terms such as Supreme Personality of Godhead and Supreme God as an equivalent to the term Svayam Bhagavan, and may also choose to apply these terms to Vishnu, Narayana and many of their associated Avatars.[125][126] It should be however noted that although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avatars, this is only one of the names of god of Vaishnavism, who is also known as Narayana, Vasudeva and Krishna and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaishnavism.[127]
Within Hinduism, Krishna is worshiped from a variety of perspectives.[128][129]Krishnaism is a tradition related to Vaishnavism wherein Krishna is considered Svayam Bhagavan, meaning 'God Himself', and this title is used exclusively to designate Krishna as the Supreme God.[130][131] Krishnaite traditions of Hinduism consider him to be the source of all avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself, or to be the same as Narayana. As such, he is therefore regarded as Svayam Bhagavan.[132][133][123]
In other sub-traditions of Vaishnavism, Krishna is one of many aspects and avatars of Vishnu (Rama is another, for example), recognized and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and viewpoints.[128] Vaishnavism is one of the earliest single God focussed traditions that derives its heritage from the Vedas.[132][133][139]
When followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaishnavism describe Krishna as "Svayam Bhagavan" it refers to their belief that Krishna is among the highest and fullest of all avatars and is considered to be the "paripurna Avatara", complete in all respects and the same as the original.[140] According to them Krishna is described in the Bhagavata Purana as the Purnavatara (or complete manifestation) of the Bhagavan, while other incarnations are called partial.
In Sri Vaishnavism, Krishna is viewed as one of the many avatars of Narayana or Vishnu.[141][127] The Sri Vaishnavism sub-tradition reveres goddess Lakshmi with god Vishnu as equivalent,[142] and traces it roots its roots to the ancient Vedas and Pancaratra texts in Sanskrit.[143]
^[a] Hark, Lisa; DeLisser, Horace (2011). Achieving Cultural Competency. John Wiley & Sons. Three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of Brahman. [b] Toropov & Buckles 2011: The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rites in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities are understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality.
[d] Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff (2007). An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies. Liturgical Press. While Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas.
^"not sublatable",[94] the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated (German: "aufheben").
^Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008
^MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
^Chakravarti, Sitansu S. (1991). "The Hindu Perspective". Hinduism, a Way of Life. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 70–71. ISBN978-81-208-0899-7. OCLC925707936. According to Hinduism, different religions are but alternate ways toward the same spiritual goal. Thus, although spirituality is a necessary quest for human beings, the religion one follows does not have to be the same for everyone. [...] The first Hindu scripture, the Rigveda, dating back to at least 4.000 years, says: "Truth is one, though the wise call it by different names." The Mahabharata, which includes the Gita, is replete with sayings meaning that religious streams, though separate, head toward the same ocean of divinity.
^ abcdLeeming, David A. (2014). "Brahman". In Leeming, David A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion (2nd ed.). Boston: Springer Verlag. p. 197. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_9052. ISBN978-1-4614-6087-9. For Hindus, especially those in the Advaita Vedanta tradition, Brahman is the undifferentiated reality underlying all existence. Brahman is the eternal first cause present everywhere and nowhere, beyond time and space, the indefinable Absolute. The gods are incarnations of Brahman. It can be said that everything that is Brahman. And it can be argued that Brahman is a monotheistic concept or at least a monistic one, since all gods – presumably of any tradition – are manifestations of Brahman, real only because Brahman exists.
^U Murthy (1979), Samskara, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195610796, page 150
^ abDissanayake, Wimal (1993). "The Body in Indian Theory and Practice". In Kasulis, Thomas P.; Ames, Roger T.; Dissanayake, Wimal (eds.). Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice. SUNY Series: The Body in Culture, History, and Religion. Albany, New York: SUNY Press. p. 39. ISBN0-7914-1079-X. OCLC24174772. The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought, and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self. [...] If we adhere to the thought that the Brahman is the cosmic principle governing the universe and Atman as its physical correlate, the essence of Upanishadic thought can be succinctly stated in the formula Brahman = Atman.
^Kaufman, Whitley R. P. (2005). "Karma, Rebirth, and the Problem of Evil". Philosophy East and West. 55 (1): 15–32. doi:10.1353/pew.2004.0044. S2CID159781530.
^Bruce Trigger (2003), Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0521822459, pages 473-474
^Charles Taliaferro and Elsa J. Marty (2010), A Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN978-1441111975, pages 98-99
^Eric Ackroyd (2009). Divinity in Things: Religion Without Myth. Sussex Academic Press. p. 78. ISBN978-1-84519-333-1., Quote: "The jealous God who says, "Thou shalt have no other gods but me" belongs to the Jewish-Christian-Muslim tradition, but not to the Hindu tradition, which tolerates all gods but is not a monotheism, monism, yes, but not monotheism."
^Guy Beck (2005), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0791464151, page 169 note 11
^Bruce Trigger (2003), Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study, Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-0521822459, pages 441-442, Quote: [Historically...] people perceived far fewer differences between themselves and the gods than the adherents of modern monotheistic religions. Deities were not thought to be omniscient or omnipotent and were rarely believed to be changeless or eternal."
^ abP. T. Raju (2006), Idealistic Thought of India, Routledge, ISBN978-1406732627, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII
^Fowler 2002, pp. 49–55 (in Upanishads), 318–319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246–248 and 252–255 (in Advaita), 342–343 (in Dvaita), 175–176 (in Samkhya-Yoga).
^ abFor dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0199738724, pages 51–58, 111–115; For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara, Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35
^Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0791470824, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman – Self and All
^Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, ISBN978-3110342550, pages 155–157
^ abWilliam Wainwright (2012), Concepts of GodArchived 23 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: 13 June 2015)
^ abcdeKaren Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0195351903, page 21
^ abJeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN978-1845193461, pages xxvii–xxxiv
^ abcJeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN978-1845193461, pages 207–211
^ abDavid Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0791428054, page 2
^Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120832329, pages 38-39
^Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Parabhaktisutra, Aphorisms on Sublime Devotion, (Translator: A Chatterjee), in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 55-93; Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126-129
^Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, ISBN978-0-7914-3815-2, page 86
^Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN978-8120832329, pages 31-45
^ abcGupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami. Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-40548-5.
^ abDimock Jr, E.C.; Dimock, E.C. (1989). The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal. University of Chicago Press.
page 132
^Knapp, S. (2005). The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination -. iUniverse. "Krishna is the primeval Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into unlimited forms with all potencies." page 161
^Bhagawan Swaminarayan bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981. p. 154: ...Shri Vallabhacharya [and] Shri Swaminarayan... Both of them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotieon (Nirguna Bhakti), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page 154, Sahajānanda, Vedanta. 1981
^ abElkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub.
^Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 341. ISBN978-0-521-43878-0. Retrieved 21 April 2008. gavin flood."Early Vaishnava worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups generally referred to as Bhagavatas, while Narayana was worshipped by the Pancaratra sect."
^"Sapthagiri". tirumala.org. Archived from the original on 21 November 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2008.
Parashara Maharishi, Vyasa's father had devoted the largest Amsa (part) in Vishnu Purana to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the Paripoorna Avatara. And according to Lord Krishna's own (instructions) upadesha, "he who knows (the secrets of) His (Krishna's) Janma (birth) and Karma (actions) will not remain in samsara (punar janma naiti- maam eti) and attain Him after leaving the mortal coil." (BG 4.9). Parasara Maharishi ends up Amsa 5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (Vishnu Purana .5.38.94)
^Lester, Robert C (1966). "Rāmānuja and Śrī-vaiṣṇavism: The Concept of Prapatti or Śaraṇāgati". History of Religions. 5 (2): 266–269. doi:10.1086/462526. JSTOR1062115. S2CID162224010.
Brannigan, Michael (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN978-0739138465
Elkman, S. M.; Gosvami, J. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya Vaisnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub.
Matchett, Freda (2000), Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana, Surrey: Routledge, ISBN978-0-7007-1281-6
Potter, Karl H. (2008), The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
Raju, P. T. (1992), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000). A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, 3rd Edition. Motilal Banarsidass (2008 Reprint). ISBN978-8120815759.
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Artikel ini membutuhkan rujukan tambahan agar kualitasnya dapat dipastikan. Mohon bantu kami mengembangkan artikel ini dengan cara menambahkan rujukan ke sumber tepercaya. Pernyataan tak bersumber bisa saja dipertentangkan dan dihapus.Cari sumber: Kuyang – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTOR Ilustrasi kuyang Kuyang, Krasue, atau Palasik adalah folklor [1] Makhluk ini dikenal masyarakat di Kalimantan. Kuyang diceritakan sebagai man...
Former daily newspaper in California The March 19, 1851 front page of the first edition of The Sacramento UnionTypeDaily newspaperFormatBroadsheetOwner(s)VariousPublisherVariousEditorVariousFounded1851Ceased publication1994Headquarters301 Capitol Mall Sacramento, CA 95814Circulation105,000 (at max)Websitenone The Sacramento Union was a daily newspaper founded in 1851 in Sacramento, California. It was the oldest daily newspaper west of the Mississippi River before it closed its doors after 143...
Michael Häupl Ketua Partai Demokrat SosialPelaksana tugasMasa jabatan9 Mei 2016 – 25 Juni 2016 PendahuluWerner FaymannPenggantiChristian KernWali kota WinaPetahanaMulai menjabat 7 November 1994 PendahuluHelmut ZilkPenggantiPetahana Informasi pribadiLahir14 September 1949 (umur 74)Altlengbach, AustriaPartai politikPartai Demokrat SosialAlma materUniversitas WinaSunting kotak info • L • B Michael Häupl (lahir 14 September 1949) adalah seorang politikus Austri...
Questa voce o sezione sull'argomento Brasile non cita le fonti necessarie o quelle presenti sono insufficienti. Puoi migliorare questa voce aggiungendo citazioni da fonti attendibili secondo le linee guida sull'uso delle fonti. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Distretto Federaledistretto federaleDistrito Federal LocalizzazioneStato Brasile AmministrazioneCapoluogoBrasilia GovernatoreIbaneis Rocha (MDB) dal 2023[1] TerritorioCoordinatedel capoluo...
Voce principale: Unione Sportiva Pro Vercelli. S.G. Pro VercelliStagione 1910-1911 Sport calcio Squadra Pro Vercelli Allenatore Presidente Luigi Bozino Prima CategoriaVincitore StadioCampo piazzale Conte di Torino 1909-1910 1911-1912 Si invita a seguire il modello di voce Questa voce raccoglie rose e dati statistici sulla squadra di calcio Società Ginnastica Pro Vercelli nella stagione 1910-1911. Indice 1 Stagione 2 Rosa 3 Prima Categoria 3.1 Girone di andata 3.2 Girone di ritorno 3.3 ...
Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat Pasar Baru (disambiguasi). Gerbang Pasar Baru yang berdekatan dengan Jalan Antara, 2009 Pasar Baru, 1885-1900 Pasar Baru (Belanda: Passer Baroe) adalah kawasan perdagangan yang berpusat di Jalan Pasar Baru, Kelurahan Pasar Baru, Kecamatan Sawah Besar, Jakarta Pusat. Pusat perbelanjaan ini didirikan pada tahun 1820,[1] dan merupakan pusat perbelanjaan tertua di Jakarta.[2] Ujung selatan Jalan Pasar Baru berbatasan dengan Jalan Antara dan Jalan Pasar B...
Piala Emas CONCACAF 1993(Spanyol) Copa de Oro de la Concacaf 1993Logo Piala Emas CONCACAF 1993Informasi turnamenTuan rumah Amerika Serikat MeksikoJadwalpenyelenggaraan10–25 Juli 1993Jumlahtim peserta8 (dari 1 konfederasi)Tempatpenyelenggaraan2 (di 2 kota)Hasil turnamenJuara Meksiko (gelar ke-1)Tempat kedua Amerika SerikatTempat ketiga Kosta Rika JamaikaStatistik turnamenJumlahpertandingan16Jumlah gol60 (3,75 per pertandingan)Jumlahpenonton709.348...
Legislative branch of the state government of Washington This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Washington State Legislature – news · newspapers · books ...
12 جولة 3: تأمين (بالإنجليزية: Lockdown) الصنف إثارة وجريمة [لغات أخرى]، وفيلم أكشن تاريخ الصدور 2015 مدة العرض 90 دقيقة البلد الولايات المتحدة اللغة الأصلية الإنجليزية مواقع التصوير كولومبيا البريطانية، وفانكوفر[1] الطاقم البطولة جون موكس�...
SMK negeri 3 YogyakartaInformasiDidirikan1 Agustus 1965JenisSekolah Menengah KejuruanAkreditasiA [1]Nomor Statistik Sekolah321046004002Nomor Pokok Sekolah Nasional20404181Kepala SekolahWidada, S.Pd, M.PdJumlah kelas60 kelasJurusan atau peminatan8 Program KeahlianRentang kelasX, XI, XIIKurikulumKurikulum MerdekaJumlah siswa1448 siswa (2013)StatusNegeriAlamatLokasiJalan R.W. Monginsidi No. 2, Yogyakarta, Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, IndonesiaTel./Faks.(0274) 513503Situs...
Службовий список статей, створений для координації робіт з розвитку теми. Це попередження не встановлюється на інформаційні списки і глосарії. Це вибіркова сучасна бібліографія україномовних книг (включно з перекладами) та журнальних статей про ранньомоде...
Anugerah Musik Indonesia 2011Tanggal6 Juli 2011LokasiCentral Park, Kemayoran, Jakarta PusatNegaraIndonesiaPembawa acaraOkky Lukman, Pica Priscilla & Raffi AhmadIkhtisarPenghargaan terbanyakCici ParamidaEvie TamalaSandhy Sondoro (3)Karya Produksi Terbaik-TerbaikKarena Ku Sanggup – Agnes MonicaAlbum Terbaik-TerbaikEnergi – KotakPendatang Baru Terbaik-TerbaikSandhy SondoroLegend AwardElfa SecioriaSitus webami-awards.comSiaran televisi/radioSaluranRCTIWaktu tayang180 menitProduserYayasan ...
Arondisemen Blaye Administrasi Negara Prancis Region Aquitaine Departemen Gironde Kanton 4 Komune 55 Subprefektur Blaye Statistik Luas¹ 696 km² Populasi - 1999 54,136 - Kepadatan 78/km² Lokasi Lokasi Blaye di Aquitaine ¹ Data Pendaftaran Tanah Prancis, tak termasuk danau, kolam, dan gletser lebih besar dari 1 km² (0.386 mi² atau 247 ekar) juga muara sungai. Arondisemen Blaye merupakan sebuah arondisemen di Prancis, terletak di département Gironde, di région Aquita...
Pemilihan Umum Bupati Wonosobo 2020201520249 Desember 2020[1]Kandidat Calon Afif Nurhidayat Kotak Kosong Partai PDI-P Pendamping Muhammad Albar Peta persebaran suara Peta Jawa Tengah yang menyoroti Kabupaten Wonosobo Bupati dan Wakil Bupati petahanaEko Purnomo danAgus Subagiyo Partai Golongan Karya Bupati dan Wakil Bupati terpilih Belum Diketahui Pemilihan Umum Bupati Wonosobo 2020 akan dilaksanakan pada 9 Desember 2020 untuk memilih Bupati Wonosobo periode 2021-2024. Kursi Pa...
This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (July 2017) Baseball player Scott MitchinsonMitchinson with the Kane County Cougars in 2008Perth Heat – No. 35PitcherBorn: (1985-12-28) 28 December 1985 (age 38)Perth, AustraliaBats: RightThrows: Right Medals Men’s Baseball Representing Australia Haarlem Baseball Week 2016 Haarlem National team Scott Michael Mitchinson (born 28 December 1984 in Perth, Weste...
Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: Circoscrizioni di Torino. Centro Stato Italia Regione Piemonte Provincia Torino Città Torino CircoscrizioneCircoscrizione 1 Altri quartieriQuadrilatero Romano, Borgo Nuovo Superficie3,78 km² Fotografia d'epoca di Piazza San Carlo Il Centro (Ël Sènter in piemontese) è il quartiere centrale e più antico della città di Torino, nel quale sono localizzati il maggior numero di monumenti e di luoghi storici; dal 1985 costituisce, insieme alla ...
قدرت كندي تقسيم إداري البلد إيران [1] إحداثيات 37°03′10″N 46°03′27″E / 37.05277778°N 46.0575°E / 37.05277778; 46.0575 السكان التعداد السكاني 177 نسمة (إحصاء 2016) الرمز الجغرافي 18540 تعديل مصدري - تعديل قدرت كندي هي قرية في مقاطعة مياندوآب، إيران.[2] يقدر عدد سكانها بـ ...
