Yamhad (Yamḫad) was an ancient Semitic-speaking kingdom centered on Ḥalab (Aleppo) in Syria. The kingdom emerged at the end of the 19th century BC and was ruled by the Yamhad dynasty, who counted on both military and diplomacy to expand their realm. From the beginning of its establishment, the kingdom withstood the aggressions of its neighbors Mari, Qatna and the Old Assyrian Empire, and was turned into the most powerful Syrian kingdom of its era through the actions of its king Yarim-Lim I. By the middle of the 18th century BC, most of Syria minus the south came under the authority of Yamhad, either as a direct possession or through vassalage, and for nearly a century and a half, Yamhad dominated northern, northwestern and eastern Syria, and had influence over small kingdoms in Mesopotamia at the borders of Elam. The kingdom was eventually destroyed by the Hittites, then annexed by Mitanni in the 16th century BC.
Yamhad's population was predominately Amorite, and had a typical Bronze Age Syrian culture. Yamhad was also inhabited by a substantial Hurrian population that settled in the kingdom, adding the influence of their culture. Yamhad controlled a wide trading network, being a gateway between the eastern Iranian plateau and the Aegean region in the west. Yamhad worshiped the traditional Northwest Semitic deities, and the capital Halab was considered a holy city among the other Syrian cities as a center of worship for Hadad, who was regarded as the main deity of northern Syria.
History
Little of Halab has been excavated by archaeologists, as Halab was never abandoned during its long history and the modern city is situated above the ancient site.[4] Therefore, most of the knowledge about Yamhad comes from tablets discovered at Alalakh and Mari.[5]
Establishment
The name Yamhad was likely an Amorite tribal name and is used synonymously with Halab when referring to the kingdom.[2][6][7] The city of Halab was a religious center in northern Syria, and was mentioned by the name Ha-lam,[8] as a vassal of the Eblaite empire, which controlled most of Syria in the middle of the third millennium BC.[9] Halab's fame as a Holy City contributed to its later prominence;[10][11] the main temple of the north Syrian storm god Hadad was located in the city,[12] which was known as the "City of Hadad".[10]
The name Halab as well as that of Yamhad appeared for the first time during the Old Babylonian period,[6] when Sumu-Epuh, the first Yamhadite king, was attested in a seal from Mari as the ruler of the land of Yamhad,[13] which included, in addition to Halab, the cities of Alalakh and Tuba.[14][15] Sumu-Epuh consolidated the kingdom and faced Yahdun-Lim of Mari who had a dynastic alliance with Yamhad to oppose Assyria,[16] but eventually campaigned in the north threatening the kingdom.[17] The Yamhadite king supported the Yaminite tribes and formed an alliance with other Syrian states including Urshu, Hassum and Carchemish,[18][19] against the Mariote king who defeated his enemies,[20] who was eventually killed by his own son Sumu-Yamam.[21]
Rivalry with Assyria and expansion
Legal case from Niqmi-Epuh of Yamhad, to the king of Alalakh.
The rise of Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria proved more dangerous to Yamhad than Mari. The Amorite king of Assyria was an ambitious conqueror with the aim to rule Mesopotamia and the Levant, and styled himself as "king of the world".[22] Shamshi-Adad surrounded Yamhad by way of alliances with Charchemish, Hassum and Urshu to the north and by conquering Mari to the east, forcing Zimri-Lim the heir of Mari to flee. Sumu-Epuh welcomed Zimri-Lim and aimed to use him against Assyria since he was the legitimate heir of Mari.[21]
Shamshi-Adad's most dangerous alliance was with Qatna, whose king Ishi-Addu became Assyria's agent at Yamhad's borders and married his daughter to Yasmah-Adad, the son of the Assyrian king who was installed by his father as king of Mari.[23] Sumu-Epuh was apparently killed during his fight with Shamshi-Adad and was succeeded by his son Yarim-Lim I,[24] who consolidated his father's kingdom and turned it into the most powerful kingdom in Syria and northern Mesopotamia.[1][25][26] Yarim-Lim surrounded Shamshi-Adad by alliances with Hammurabi of Babylon and Ibal-pi-el II of Eshnunna,[27] then in 1777 BC he advanced to the east conquering Tuttul and installing Zimri-Lim as governor of the city.[27] The death of the Assyrian king came a year later.[27] Yarim-Lim then sent his army with Zimri-Lim, to restore his ancestor's throne as an ally-vassal to Yamhad,[27] cementing the relationship through a dynastic marriage between the new Mariote king and Shibtu, the daughter of Yarim-Lim.[28]
"There is no king who is mighty by himself. Ten or fifteen kings follow Hammurabi the ruler of Babylon, a like number of Rim-Sin of Larsa, a like number of Ibal-pi-el of Eshnunna, a like number of Amud-pi-el of Qatanum, but twenty follow Yarim-Lim of Yamhad."
A tablet sent to Zimri-Lim of Mari, describing Yarim-Lim I authority.[1]
Yarim-Lim spent the next years of his reign expanding the kingdom, which reached Mamma in the north.[29] The Syrian city-states were subdued through alliances or force; Mamma, Ebla and Ugarit became vassals of Yamhad,[2][30] while Qatna remained independent but came to peace with Yamhad following the death of its ally, the late Shamshi-Adad I.[23] A sample of Yarim-Lim policy of diplomacy and war can be read in a tablet discovered at Mari, that was sent to the king of Dēr in southern Mesopotamia, which included a declaration of war against Der and its neighbor Diniktum,[31] the tablet mentions the stationing of 500 Yamhadite warships for twelve years in Diniktum, and the Yamhadite military support of Der for 15 years.[31] Yarim-Lim's accomplishments elevated Yamhad into the status of a Great Kingdom and the Yamhadite king title became the Great King.[2][23]
Yarim-Lim I was succeeded by his son Hammurabi I who had a peaceful reign.[27] He was able to force Charchemish into submission,[27] and sent troops to aid Hammurabi of Babylon against Larsa and Elam.[32] The alliance ended after the Babylonian king sacked Mari and destroyed it.[23] Babylon did not attack Yamhad, however, and the relations between the two kingdoms remained peaceful in later years;[23] the power vacuum caused by Mari's fall opened the way for Hammurabi to extend Yamhad's hegemony over the upper Khabur valley in the east, where the ruler of Shubat Enlil became his vassal.[33] Hammurabi I was succeeded by his son Abba-El I, whose reign witnessed the rebellion of the city Irridu, which was under the authority of prince Yarim-Lim, Abba-El's brother.[34] The king responded to the rebellion by destroying Irridu, and compensating his brother by giving him the throne of Alalakh, thus creating a cadet branch of the dynasty.[34]
Decline and end
God head, discovered near Jabbul (c. 1600 BC).[35]
The era of Abba-El I's successors is poorly documented,[34] and by the time of Yarim-Lim III in the mid-17th century BC, the power of Yamhad declined due to internal dissent.[36][37] Yarim-Lim III ruled a weakened kingdom, and although he imposed Yamhadite hegemony over Qatna,[34] the weakening was obvious as Alalakh had become all but independent under the self-declared king Ammitakum.[36] In spite of this regression, the king of Yamhad remained the strongest king of the Syrian states, as he was referred to as a Great King by the Hittites,[26] the diplomatic equal of the Hittite king.[38]
The rise of the Hittite kingdom in the north posed the biggest threat to Yamhad,[39] although Yarim-Lim III and his successor Hammurabi III were able to withstand the aggressions of the Hittite king Hattusili I through alliances with the Hurrian principalities.[34] Hattusili chose not to attack Halab directly and began with conquering Yamhad's vassals and allies, starting with Alalakh in the second year of his Syrian campaigns c. 1650 BC (Middle chronology) or slightly later.[40][41] Hattusili then turned to attack the Hurrians in Urshu northeast of Halab, and won in spite of military support from Halab and Carchemish for the Hurrians.[42] The Hittite king then defeated Yamhad in the battle of Mount Atalur,[43] and sacked Hassum along with several other Hurrian cities in the sixth year of his Syrian wars.[40] After many campaigns, Hattusili I finally attacked Halab during the reign of Hammurabi III. The attack ended in a defeat, the wounding of the Hittite king and his later death c. 1620 BC.[44][45] Hattusili's campaigns considerably weakened Yamhad, causing it to decline in status: the monarch ceased to be styled a Great King.[46]
Hattusili was succeeded by his grandson Mursili I, who conquered Halab c. 1600 BC and destroyed Yamhad as a major power in the Levant.[47] Mursili then left for Babylon and sacked it, but was assassinated upon his return to his capital Hattusa, and his empire disintegrated.[48] Halab was rebuilt and the kingdom expanded to include Alalakh again.[49] The reestablished kingdom was ruled by kings of whom nothing but their names is known; the first is Sarra-El, who might have been the son of Yarim-Lim III.[50] The last king of the dynasty to rule as king of Halab was Ilim-Ilimma I,[51] whose reign ended c. 1524 when he was killed during a rebellion orchestrated by king Parshatatar of Mitanni who annexed Halab.[52][53] Ilim-Ilimma's son, Idrimi, fled to Emar then conquered Alalakh c. 1517 BC.[52][53] Seven years following his conquest of Alalakh, Idrimi made peace with Mitanni and was acknowledged as a vassal,[54] and allowed to control Halab, though he had to relocate the dynasty's residence to Alalakh and relinquish the title of "King of Halab"; the use of the name Yamhad also ended.[55]
Seal of Abba-El II: the Egyptian ankh was a replacement for the cup usually held by the deity.
The people of Yamhad were Amorites and spoke the Amorite language, and apart from a few Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Aegean influences,[65][66] Yamhad belonged mainly to middle Bronze Age Syrian culture.[67] This culture influenced the architecture and the functions of the temples, which were mainly cultic, while political authority was invested in the royal palace, in contrast to the important political role of the temples in Mesopotamia.[67]
Since the capital Halab has not been excavated, the architecture of the kingdom is archaeologically best represented by the city of Alalakh,[68] which was subordinate to Halab and ruled by a king belonging to the Yamhadite royal house.[69] The Amorites in general built large palaces that bear architectural similarities to old Babylonian-era palaces. They were adorned with grand central courtyards, throne rooms, tiled floors, drainage systems and plastered walls, which suggest the employment of specialized labor.[70] Evidence exists for the presence of Minoan Aegean fresco artists who painted elaborate scenes on the walls of the palaces in Alalakh.[70]
Yamhad had a distinctive Syrian iconography, which is clear in the seals of the kings that gave prominence to the Syrian gods. Egyptian influence was minimal and limited to the ankh, which cannot be interpreted as an emulation of Egyptian rituals but rather as merely a substitute for the cup held by the deity elsewhere.[71] Yamhad had a special pattern of trim called the Yamhad style, which was favored in Mari during the reign of king Zimri-Lim, whose queen Shibtu was the daughter of Yarim-Lim I.[72]
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, Hurrians began to settle in the city and its surroundings,[73] and by c. 1725 BC they constituted a sizable portion of the population.[74] The presence of a large Hurrian population brought Hurrian culture and religion to Halab, as evidenced by the existence of certain religious festivals that bear Hurrian names.[75]
The actions of Yarim-Lim I and his alliance with Babylon proved vital for the kingdom's economy, for they secured the trade between Mesopotamia and northern Syria, with the king of Mari protecting the caravans crossing from the Persian Gulf to Anatolia.[79] Emar attracted many Babylonian merchants, who lived in the city and had a lasting impact on the local scribal conventions. As late as the 14th century BC, texts of the so-called Syrian type from Emar preserve distinct Babylonian traits.[79]
The markets of Yamhad became a source of copper, which was imported from the mountains (probably Anatolian) and Cyprus.[80] However, the Babylonian invasion of Mari had a negative impact on the trade between the two kingdoms,[79] as the road became dangerous because of the loss of Mari's protection to the caravans.[79] This led the Babylonian king Samsu-iluna to build many strongholds up the river valley, and to establish colonies of mercenaries known as the "Kassite Houses" to protect the middle Euphrates area.[79] Those colonies later evolved into semi-independent polities that waged a war against the Babylonian king Ammi-Saduqa and caused the trade temporarily to stop.[79]
The people of Yamhad practiced the Amorite religion,[81] and mainly worshiped the Northwest Semitic deities. The most important of these were Dagon, who was considered the father of the gods,[82] and Hadad, who was the most important deity and the head of the pantheon.[83] The kingdom was known as the "land of Hadad", who was famous as the Storm-God of Halab beginning in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC.[83] His main temple was located on the citadel hill in the center of the city and remained in use from the 24th century BC,[84] until at least the 9th century BC.[85]
The title "Beloved of Hadad" was one of the king's titles.[83][86] Hadad was the kingdom's patron god, and all treaties were concluded in his name, which was also used to threaten other kingdoms,[87] and to declare wars.[88] As the Hurrian presence grew, so did Hurrian religious influences and some of the Hurrian deities found a place in the Yamhadite pantheon.[75] King Abba-El I mentioned receiving the support of the Hurrian goddess Hebat in one of the Alalakh tablets (Hebat was the spouse of the Hurrian main deity Teshub, but in Abba-El I's tablet, she is associated with Hadad).[75] Later, the Hurrians started to identify Teshub with Hadad, who became Teshub the Storm-God of Halab.[89]
Beside the general gods, the kings had a "head god", that is, a deity who had an intimate connection for the worshiper. King Yarim-Lim I described Hadad as the god of the state, but the Mesopotamian deity Sin as the god of his head. His son Hammurabi I did likewise.[90]
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Hadad temple discovery. Kay Kohlmeyer, an archaeologist at Berlin's University of Applied Sciences and the excavation co-director explain about the temple.
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Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Desember 2022. Artikel atau sebagian dari artikel ini mungkin diterjemahkan dari Hair whorl di en.wikipedia.org. Isinya masih belum akurat, karena bagian yang diterjemahkan masih perlu diperhalus dan disempurnakan. Jika Anda menguasai bahasa aslinya, harap pertimban...
Aromatic compound (C4H4N2) Not to be confused with Pyridine. Pyrimidine Names Preferred IUPAC name Pyrimidine[1] Systematic IUPAC name 1,3-Diazabenzene Other names 1,3-Diazinem-Diazine Identifiers CAS Number 289-95-2 Y 3D model (JSmol) Interactive image ChEBI CHEBI:16898 Y ChEMBL ChEMBL15562 Y ChemSpider 8903 Y ECHA InfoCard 100.005.479 KEGG C00396 Y MeSH pyrimidine PubChem CID 9260 UNII K8CXK5Q32L Y CompTox Dashboard (EPA) DTXSID1051228 InChI InChI=1S/C4...
Untuk ayahnya yang bernama sama, lihat Talasa. Raja PosoWongko Lemba Talasa Anggota Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik IndonesiaMasa jabatan1982–1985PresidenSoeharto[[Raja Poso]] 9Masa jabatan1947–1985 PendahuluTalasaPenggantiPetahana Informasi pribadiLahirWongko Lemba Talasa(1914-05-13)13 Mei 1914Tentena, Sulawesi TengahMeninggal3 Februari 1985(1985-02-03) (umur 70)Poso, Sulawesi TengahPartai politik PNISuami/istriIntje RagompiAnak5PekerjaanPegawai Negeri SipilSunting kotak...
Pemandangan dari sisi Berlin Barat (temboknya penuh dengan lukisan) pada tahun 1986. Kawasan daerah terlarang berada di sisi timur tembok ini, mengikuti bentuk dari Kanal Luisenstadt. Tembok Berlin pada tanggal 16 November 1989. Map yang menunjukkan lokasi Tembok Berlin, sekaligus menunjukkan tempat pos pemeriksaan. Blok Timur Republik Sosialis Soviet Armenia Azerbaijan Byelorusia Estonia Georgia Kazakhstan Kirgizstan Latvia Lituania Moldavia Rusia Tajikistan Turkmenistan Ukraina Uzbekistan N...
Telephone area codes for Broward County, Florida This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Area codes 954 and 754 – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Area codes 954 and 754 are the telephone area codes in the North American Numb...
Al-Mustadrak 'ala aṣ-Ṣaḥiḥain PengarangHakim an-NaisaburiBahasaArabSubjekالمستدرك على الصحيحينGenreKumpulan Hadis Al-Mustadrak 'ala ash-Shahihain (Arab: المستدرك على الصحيحينcode: ar is deprecated ) adalah kitab koleksi hadits yang disusun oleh Hakim al-Naisaburi (w. 405 H) setebal lima jilid. Al-Hakim menyusun kitab ini pada tahun 393 H (1002 M) ketika dia berumur 72 tahun. Kitab ini memuat 9045 hadits.[1] Dia menyatakan bahwa seluruh had...
Election in Michigan Main article: 1940 United States presidential election 1940 United States presidential election in Michigan ← 1936 November 5, 1940 1944 → All 19 Michigan votes to the Electoral College Nominee Wendell Willkie Franklin D. Roosevelt Party Republican Democratic Home state New York New York Running mate Charles L. McNary Henry A. Wallace Electoral vote 19 0 Popular vote 1,039,917 1,032,991 Percentage 49.85% 49.52% County Resul...
British sculptor (1948–2021) Heather JanschJansch at work in her studio in Olchard, DevonBornHeather Rosemary Sewell[1](1948-08-03)August 3, 1948[2]Hockley, EssexDied5 July 2021Olchard, DevonEducationWalthamstow Technical College and Goldsmiths College[1]OccupationSculptorYears active1968–2021Notable workDriftwood horsesSpouseBert Jansch (divorced)[1]ChildrenKieron JanschWebsitewww.heatherjansch.com Heather Jansch (born Heather Rosemary Sewell) was a B...
Cet article est une ébauche concernant une localité du New Jersey. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les recommandations des projets correspondants. MaplewoodGéographiePays États-UnisÉtat New JerseyComté comté d'EssexSuperficie 10,05 km2Altitude 69 mCoordonnées 40° 43′ 44″ N, 74° 16′ 05″ ODémographiePopulation 25 684 hab. (2020)Densité 2 555,6 hab./km2 (2020)Fonctionnement...
For residents of the subregion of Ruanda, see List of colonial residents of Rwanda. For residents of the subregion of Urundi, see List of colonial residents of Burundi. Ruanda-Urundi (dark green) depicted within the Belgian colonial empire (light green), 1935. This is a list of European colonial administrators responsible for the territory of Ruanda-Urundi, an area equivalent to modern-day Rwanda and Burundi. Ruanda-Urundi formed part of German East Africa until it was captured by Belgian fo...
2015 edition of the IIHF World Championship 2015 IIHF World ChampionshipTournament detailsHost country Czech RepublicVenue(s)2 (in 2 host cities)Dates1–17 MayOpened byMiloš ZemanTeams16Final positionsChampions Canada (25th title)Runner-up RussiaThird place United StatesFourth place Czech RepublicTournament statisticsGames played64Goals scored354 (5.53 per game)Attendance741,700 (11,589 per game)Scoring leader(s) Jason...
San AngelocityCity of San Angelo San Angelo – Veduta LocalizzazioneStato Stati Uniti Stato federato Texas ConteaTom Green TerritorioCoordinate31°27′N 100°27′W / 31.45°N 100.45°W31.45; -100.45 (San Angelo)Coordinate: 31°27′N 100°27′W / 31.45°N 100.45°W31.45; -100.45 (San Angelo) Altitudine562 m s.l.m. Superficie153,17[1] km² Acque interne5,91 km² (3,86%) Abitanti93 200[2] (2010) Densità608,47...
Songs recorded by Adele Adele has recorded songs for four studio albums, entitled 19, 21, 25, and 30. Adele is an English singer-songwriter. After signing a contract with record label XL Recordings in September 2006, Adele began to work on her debut studio album, 19, which was ultimately released in 2008.[1] At this time, the singer contributed guest vocals on the song My Yvonne for Jack Peñate's debut studio album Matinée (2007).[2] The first single released from 19 was Cha...
Pour l’article ayant un titre homophone, voir Valines. Pour les articles homonymes, voir V. Valine L ou S(+)-valine et D ouR(–)-valine Identification Nom UICPA acide 2-amino-3-méthylbutanoïque Synonymes V, Val No CAS 516-06-3 (racémique)72-18-4 (L) ou S(+)640-68-6 (D) ou R(–) No ECHA 100.000.703 No CE 200-773-6 (L)211-368-9 (D) FEMA 3444 Propriétés chimiques Formule C5H11NO2 [Isomères] Masse molaire[1] 117,146 3 ± 0,005 6 ...
In The Still Of The Night郭富城的录音室专辑发行日期2003年8月29日录制时间2003年类型粵語流行音樂时长36:21唱片公司華納唱片郭富城专辑年表 空手道（2002年） In The Still Of The Night（2003年） 城意三部曲（2004年） 《In the Still of the Night》是香港歌手郭富城的個人粵語專輯，於2003年8月發行。 曲目列表 CD曲序曲目作词作曲编曲製作人备注时长1.Intro 陳光榮陳光榮陳光榮 0:122.水�...
Dangerous Drugs of SexCover of the Japanese version of vol. 1, first published on February 19, 2019性の劇薬(Sei no Gekiyaku)GenreYaoi[1] MangaPengarangYuki MizutaPenerbitMagazine MagazineImprintWow! Comics Pierce SeriesMajalahBoys FanDemografiJoseiTerbit21 Juni 2018 (2018-06-21) – sekarangVolume2 Film laga hidupSutradaraHideo JojoSkenarioHideo JojoMusikGuido HayashiTayang14 Februari 2020 (2020-02-14)Durasi89 menit Portal anime dan manga Dangerous Drugs of Sex...
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