Insects as food

For the cultural and biological process of eating insects, see Entomophagy in humans.
Whole, fried edible insects as street food in Germany
Whole, steamed silkworm pupae as street food in South Korea (beondegi)
Digging for Honeypot ants in Australia

Insects as food or edible insects are insect species used for human consumption.[1] Over 2 billion people are estimated to eat insects on a daily basis.[2] Globally, more than 2,000 insect species are considered edible, though far fewer are discussed for industrialized mass production and regionally authorized for use in food.[3][4][5][6] Many insects are highly nutritious, though nutritional content depends on species and other factors such as diet and age.[7][8] Insects offer a wide variety of flavors and are commonly consumed whole or pulverized for use in dishes and processed food products such as burger patties, pasta, or snacks.[9][10] Like other foods, there can be risks associated with consuming insects, such as allergic reactions.[11] As commercial interest in insects as food grows, countries are introducing new regulatory frameworks to oversee their production, processing, marketing, and consumption.[12]

Benefits

With over 2,000 identified edible insects, there are many options for human consumption. Insects may provide a sustainable option for protein sources containing 13-77% protein by dry weight. Some insects may also be used as a fat source boasting up to 67.25% lipids by dry weight. Insects can provide omega-6 and omega-3, iron (proportionally more iron than other major food sources like beef), and zinc. Besides nutrients, the energy obtained by eating insects can be similar to other food sources like beef and chicken depending on what kind of insect is eaten.[13]

There are also environmental benefits from using insects as a food source: Insects require significantly less feed, can be used in feed, and release fewer CO2 emissions than conventional animal food sources.[14] They can be used to address the issue of depleted agricultural lands as they don't need much space to be reared as compared to livestock. Additionally, food waste is a significant issue with 1/3 of food being wasted globally; Since insects can eat food waste, and they require less feed, they are a good option to address food waste.[15]

Insects may be a sustainable commercial farming option to support populations struggling with food security due to their nutrition and farming capacities, taking less room to cultivate than other protein sources.[14]

Edible insects

Frequently consumed insect species

Human consumption of 2,205 different insect species has been documented.[16]

The table below ranks insect order by number and percentage of confirmed species consumed and presents each insect orders' percentage of known insect species diversity.[4][17][18] With the exceptions of orders Orthoptera and Diptera, there is close alignment between species diversity and consumption, suggesting that humans tend to eat those insects that are most available.[19]

Human insect consumption by taxonomic order
Insect order Common name Number of confirmed species consumed by humans[4] Percentage of insect species consumed by humans (%)[4] Percentage of total insect species (%)[17]
Coleoptera Beetles 705 33 32
Hymenoptera Bees, wasps, ants 341 15 15.5
Lepidoptera Butterflies, moths 335 17 15.2
Orthoptera Grasshoppers, locusts, crickets 310 13 14.1
Hemiptera Cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, scale insects, true bugs 251 11 11.4
Isoptera Termites 76 3.4
Odonata Dragonflies 54 3 2.4
Diptera Flies 39 1.8
Ephemeroptera Mayflies 11 1.7
Plecoptera Stoneflies 9 0.4
Trichoptera Caddisflies 8 0.4
Phasmida Walking Sticks 7 0.3
Megaloptera Alderflies, dobsonflies, fishflies 4 0.2
Psocoptera Booklice 1 0.05
Dermaptera Earwigs 1 0.05

Geography of insect consumption

Number of edible insect species per country

Insect species consumption varies by region due to differences in environment, ecosystems, and climate.[20][21] The number of insect species consumed by country is highest in equatorial and sub-tropical regions, a reflection of greater insect abundance and biodiversity observed at lower latitudes and their year-round availability.[21][19][22]

For a list of edible insects consumed locally see: List of edible insects by country.

Edible insects for industrialized mass production

To increase consumer interest in Western markets such as Europe and North America, insects have been processed into a non‐recognizable form, such as powders or flour.[23] Policymakers, academics,[5] as well as large-scale insect food producers such as Entomofarms in Canada, Aspire Food Group in the United States,[24] Protifarm and Protix in the Netherlands, and Bühler Group in Switzerland, focus on seven insect species suitable for human consumption as well as industrialized mass production:[6]

Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) is collected to produce carmine, a red dye used for textiles and food. It was largely substituted with synthetic dyes like alizarin. Fears over the safety of artificial food additives renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand has made cultivation of the insect profitable again,[25] with Peru being the largest producer, followed by Mexico, Chile, Argentina and the Canary Islands.[26]

  • Freeze-dried mealworms as food (or food ingredient)
    Freeze-dried mealworms as food (or food ingredient)
  • Buffalo worms as food (or ingredient)
    Buffalo worms as food (or ingredient)
  • House crickets as food (or ingredient)
    House crickets as food (or ingredient)
  • Migratory locusts as food (or ingredient)
    Migratory locusts as food (or ingredient)

Nutritional profile

Freeze-dried mealworms and buffalo worms (lesser mealworm)

The nutritional profiles of edible insects are highly variable given the large number of species consumed.[8] In addition to species differences, nutritional content can be affected by geographic origin and production method (wild or farmed), diet, age, development stage, and sex.[27][8] For instance, female house crickets (Acheta domestica) contain more fat than males, while males contain more protein than females.[28]

Some insects (e.g. crickets, mealworms) are a source of complete protein and provide similar essential amino acid levels as soybeans, though less than casein.[29][30] They have dietary fiber, essential minerals, vitamins such as B12,[31] riboflavin and vitamin A, and include mostly unsaturated fat.[32][33]

Locusts contain between 8 and 20 milligrams of iron for every 100 grams of raw locust, whereas beef contains roughly 6 milligrams of iron in the same amount of meat.[citation needed] Crickets are also very efficient in terms of nutrients. For every 100 grams of substance crickets contain 12.9 grams of protein, 121 calories, and 5.5 grams of fat. Beef contains more protein, containing 23.5 grams in 100 grams of substance, but also has roughly triple the calories and four times the amount of fat as crickets do in 100 grams.[citation needed]

Nutritional value
per 100 g		 Mealworms
(Tenebrio molitor)		 Buffalo worms
(Alphitobius diaperinus)		 House crickets
(Acheta domesticus)		 Migratory locust
(Locusta migratoria)
Energy 550 kcal / 2303 kJ 484 kcal / 2027 kJ 458 kcal / 1918 kJ 559 kcal / 2341 kJ
Fat
Of which saturated fatty acids		 37,2 g
9 g		 24,7 g
8 g		 18,5 g
7 g		 38,1 g
13,1 g
Carbohydrates
Of which sugars		 5,4 g
0 g		 6,7 g
0 g		 0 g
0 g		 1,1 g
0 g
Protein 45,1 g 56,2 g 69,1 g 48,2 g
Salt 0,37 g 0,38 g 1,03 g 0,43 g

Organoleptic characteristics

Chapulines, a popular edible grasshopper of Mexico

The organoleptic characteristics of edible insects vary between species and are influenced by environment.[34] For instance, aquatic edible insects such as water boatmen (family Corixidae) and dragonfly larvae have a fish flavor, while diving beetles taste more like clams.[34][35][36] Environment is not always a predictor of flavor, as terrestrial edible insects may also exhibit fish-like flavors (e.g. crickets, grasshoppers).[35][36] Over 400 volatile compounds responsible for the aroma and flavor of edible insects have been identified.[9] Pheromone chemicals contribute to pungent aromas and flavors in some species and the presence of organic acids (like formic acid in ants) makes some species taste sour.[37] Organoleptic characteristics are dependent on the development stage of the insect (egg, larva, pupa, nymph, or adult) and may change significantly as an insect matures.[34] For example, texture can change from soft to crunchy as an insect develops from larva to adult due to increasing exoskeletal chitin.[34] Cooking method is considered the strongest influence on the final flavor of edible insects.[34][9] Wet-cooking methods such as scalding or steaming remove pheromones and odor compounds, resulting in a milder flavor, while dry-cooking methods such as frying and roasting introduce more complex flavors.[34][9][38]

The table below provides common flavor descriptors for a selection of edible insects.[35][37] Flavors will vary with preparation method (e.g. raw, dried, fried, etc.). Insect development stage is provided when possible.

Flavor descriptors of a selection of edible insects[35][37][34]
Insect Scientific name Development stage Flavor
Agave worm (white) Aegiale hesperiaris[39] Larvae Cracklings
Agave worm (red) Comadia redtenbacheri[40] Larvae Spicy
Ants Family Formicidae Adult Sweet, nutty
Carpenter ant Camponotus spp. Adult Charred lemon
Wood ant Formica spp. Adult Kaffir lime
Black witch moth Ascalapha odorata Larvae Herring
Cockroach Order Blattodea - Mushroom
Cricket Superfamily Grylloidea Adult Fish
Corn earworm Helicoverpa zea Larvae Sweet corn
Dragonfly Infraorder Anisoptera Larvae Fish
Grasshopper Suborder Caelifera Adult Fish
Honey bee Apis spp. Brood Butter, milk, herbal, vegetal, meaty, mushroom
Mealworm Tenebrio molitor - Nutty (larvae); whole wheat bread (adult)
Mealybug Family Pseudococcidae - Fried potato
Stinkbug Family Pentatomidae Adult Apple
Termite Infraorder Isoptera Adult Nutty
Treehopper Family Membracidae - Avocado, zucchini
Wasp Suborder Apocrita - Pine nut
Water boatmen Family Corixidae - Caviar (egg); fish, shrimp (adult)

Farming, production, and processing

See also: Insect farming
Cricket Shelter Modular Edible Insect Farm, designed by Terreform ONE
Crickets
Crickets being raised for human consumption

Edible insects are raised as livestock in specialized insect farms. In North American as well as European countries such as the Netherlands or Belgium, insects are produced under strict food law and hygiene standards for human consumption.[citation needed]

Conditions such as temperature, humidity, feed, water sources, and housing, vary depending on the insect species.[citation needed] The insects are raised from eggs to larvae status (mealworms, lesser mealworms) or to their mature form (crickets, locusts) in industrialized insect farms and then killed via temperature control.[41][42] Culled insects may be freeze-dried and packed whole, or pulverized to insect powder (insect flour) to be used in other food products such as baked goods or snacks.

In addition to nutritional composition and digestibility, insect species are selected for ease of rearing by the producer based on factors such as disease susceptibility, feed conversion efficiency, rate of development, and generational turnover.[43]

Insect food products

The following processed foods are produced in North America (including Canada), and the EU:

  • Insect flour: Pulverized, freeze-dried insects (e.g., cricket flour).
  • Insect burger: Hamburger patties made from insect powder / insect flour (mainly from mealworms or from house cricket) and other ingredients.[44]
  • Insect fitness bars: Protein bars containing insect powder (mostly house crickets).
  • Insect pasta: Pasta made of wheat flour, fortified with insect flour (house crickets or mealworms).
  • Insect bread (Finnish Sirkkaleipä): Bread baked with insect flour (mostly house crickets).[45]
  • Insect snacks: Crisps, flips or small snacks (bites) made with insect powder and other ingredients.[46]

Food and drink companies such as the Australian brewery Bentspoke Brewing Co and the South African startup Gourmet Grubb have introduced insect-based beer,[47] a milk alternative, and insect ice cream.[48]

  • Insect energy bar made with processed crickets
    Insect energy bar made with processed crickets
  • Insect snacks (bites) with cultivated cricket flour and oat
    Insect snacks (bites) with cultivated cricket flour and oat

Food safety

Like other foods, the consumption of insects presents health risks stemming from biological, toxicological, and allergenic hazards.[49][50] Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi and mycotoxins; toxological risks are poisons, pesticides, heavy metals and antinutrients; allergenic hazards relate to arginine kinase, tropomyosin and α-Amylase.[51]

Chitin, a component of insect exoskeletons and other body parts, induces cytokine production in the digestive systems of humans and other mammals. Enzymes break the chitin down into smaller fragments, which trigger an immune response that results in inflammatory and allergic reactions.[52] The human immune response to chitin is thought to be related to the abundance of dust mites as a cause of airway inflammatory disease and parasites as a cause of numerous diseases.[52]

In general, insects harvested from the wild pose a greater risk than farmed insects, and insects consumed raw pose a greater risk than insects that are cooked before consumption.[49] Feed substrate and growing conditions are the main factors influencing the microbiological and chemical hazards of farmed insects.[53][54]

The table below combined the data from two studies[55][56] published in Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety and summarized the potential hazards of the top five insect species consumed by humans.

Insect order Common name Hazard category Potential hazard
Coleoptera Beetle Chemical Hormones
Cyanogenic substances
Heavy metal contamination
Lepidoptera Silkworm Allergic
Chemical Thiaminase
Honeycomb moth Microbial High bacterial count
Chemical Cyanogenic substances
Hymenoptera Ant Chemical Antinutritional factors (tannin, phytate)
Orthoptera House cricket Microbial High bacterial count
Hemiptera Parasitical Chagas disease
Diptera Black soldier fly Parasitical Myiasis

The hazards identified in the above table can be controlled in various ways. Allergens can be labelled on the package to avoid consumption by allergy-susceptible consumers. Selective farming can be used to minimize chemical hazards, whereas microbial and parasitical hazards can be controlled by cooking processes.[56]

As a further guarantee for consumers, quality labeling has been introduced by the Entotrust programme, an independent and voluntary product certification of insect-based foods, which allows producers to communicate the safety and sustainability of their activities.[57]

Challenges

There are challenges associated with the production, processing, and consumption of insects as food.[11]

Production

Mass production in the insect industry is a concern due to a lack of technology and funds to efficiently harvest and produce insects. The machinery would have to house proper enclosure for each life cycle of the insect as well as the temperature control as that is key for insect development.[58]

Processing

The availability of wild-harvested insects can be seasonally dependent.[59] This presents a challenge, as many wild-harvested insects have a short shelf life, sometimes of only a day or two.[60] Identifying methods of processing and storing that extend the shelf life of seasonal insects will improve the efficiency of their harvest and consumption.

Aversion

The concept of eating insects is generally taboo in Western cultures.[61] Backlash against using insects as food has also involved conspiracy theories regarding government control.[62]

Regulation and authorisation

EU

In the European Union, edible insects – whole or in parts, e.g., legs, wings, or heads – fall within the definition of novel food, given by the European Commission.[63] Dossiers for several insect species are currently under review by the European Food Safety Authority.

In August 2018, EFSA published a first risk profile for the house cricket as food.[64] According to a risk assessment published by EFSA on 13 January 2021, the yellow mealworm is safe for human consumption.[65][66] On 2 July 2021, EFSA published another scientific opinion stating that migratory locust in frozen, dried or ground state is safe for human consumption.[67] On 17 August 2021, EFSA published a safety assessment with view to house crickets (Acheta domesticus) stating that frozen and dried formulations from whole house crickets are safe for consumption.[68] On 4 July 2022, EFSA published an opinion confirming the safety of frozen and freeze-dried formulations of the lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus in larval state) for human consumption.[69]

Following EFSA's assessment, the European Commission has authorized the following edible insects as novel food in the EU:

  • Dried Tenebrio molitor larvae (mealworms) with the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/882 of 1 June 2021 (in force on 22 June 2021).[70]
  • Frozen, dried and powdered forms of migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) with the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/1975 of 12 November 2021 (in force on 5 December 2021).[71]
  • Frozen, dried and powdered forms of house cricket (Acheta domesticus) with the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/188 of 10 February 2022.[72]
  • Frozen, paste, dried and powder forms of lesser mealworm larvae (Alphitobius diaperinus) with the Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/58 of 5 January 2023.[73]

Switzerland

On 1 May 2017, Switzerland approved the following insect species as food:[74]

Under certain conditions, these may be offered to consumers whole, pulverized, or processed in food products.

UK

After the Brexit transition period, the regulation regarding edible insects changed in the United Kingdom on 21 January 2021, making them non-marketable without authorization.[citation needed] Insect food products that had been on the market had to be recalled. Insect food products have to be authorized by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) in a novel food authorization process.[75][76] In February 2022, UK insect industry association Woven Network CIC submitted a first dossier for the authorization of house crickets (Acheta domesticus) as novel food to the FSA.[77]

USA and Canada

In the USA and Canada, insects for human consumption are not classified as novel food and the import and sale is permitted.[citation needed] In the US, insect food products must comply with FDA standards and food labelling regulations (including allergy risk labelling).[78]

Within the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act), the FDA states that "The term 'food' means (1) articles used for food or drink for man or other animals, (2) chewing gum, and (3) articles used for components of any such article."[79] Thus, with insects falling under said category, they must be safe and may not bear any added poisonous or added deleterious substance that is unsafe. Said items may not be prepared, packed, or held under insanitary conditions, and must be produced in accordance with current Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), regulations for manufacturing/processing, packing, or holding human food.[80][81] The FD&C Act also includes requirements that pertain to the labeling of food and preventive controls, as applicable. Manufacturers have a responsibility to ensure that the food they produce for the United States market is safe and complies with the FD&C Act and FDA's implementing regulations.[3]

In Canada, insects are subject to the same standards and guidelines as other foods sold in stores or online.[82]

Singapore

Singapore Food Agency (SFA) has approved 16 species of insects, such as crickets, silkworms and grasshoppers, for human consumption in the second half of 2023.[83]

The approval of the insects for consumption will be subject to food safety requirements, including treatment processes to kill pathogens and ensuring that they are packed and stored safely to prevent contamination.[83]

Awareness

World Edible Insect Day, held on 23 October, was introduced by Belgian entrepreneur Chris Derudder in 2015 to raise awareness globally for the consumption of edible insects, with a focus on Europe, North America, and Australia.[84]

History

Insects have long been a part of the human diet, dating back to prehistoric times. Ancient Roman soldiers may have eaten insects like locusts when resources were low.[85]

See also

Footnotes

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