Cygnus X-1

For other uses, see Cygnus X-1 (disambiguation).

Cygnus X-1
Location of Cygnus X-1 (circled)
Observation data
Epoch J2000      Equinox J2000
Constellation Cygnus
Right ascension 19h 58m 21.67574s[1]
Declination +35° 12′ 05.7845″[1]
Apparent magnitude (V) 8.95[2]
Characteristics
Spectral type O9.7Iab[2]
U−B color index −0.30[3]
B−V color index +0.81[3]
Variable type Ellipsoidal variable
Astrometry
Radial velocity (Rv)−2.70±3.2[2] km/s
Proper motion (μ) RA: −3.812±0.015 mas/yr[1]
Dec.: −6.310±0.017 mas/yr[1]
Parallax (π)0.4439 ± 0.0149 mas[1]
Distance7,300 ± 200 ly
(2,250 ± 80 pc)
Absolute magnitude (MV)−6.5±0.2[4]
Details
Cygnus X-1
Mass21.2[5][6] M☉
Details
HDE 226868
Mass20–40 M☉
Radius20–22[7] R☉
Luminosity3–4×105[7] L☉
Surface gravity (log g)3.31±0.07[8] cgs
Temperature31000[9] K
Rotationevery 5.6 days
Age4.8-7.6[10] Myr
Other designations
AG (or AGK2)+35 1910, BD+34 3815, HD (or HDE) 226868, HIP 98298, SAO 69181, V1357 Cyg.[2]
Database references
SIMBADdata

Cygnus X-1 (abbreviated Cyg X-1)[11] is a galactic X-ray source in the constellation Cygnus and was the first such source widely accepted to be a black hole.[12][13] It was discovered in 1964 during a rocket flight and is one of the strongest X-ray sources detectable from Earth, producing a peak X-ray flux density of 2.3×10−23 W/(m2⋅Hz) (2.3×103 jansky).[14][15] It remains among the most studied astronomical objects in its class. The compact object is now estimated to have a mass about 21.2 times the mass of the Sun[5][6] and has been shown to be too small to be any known kind of normal star or other likely object besides a black hole.[16] If so, the radius of its event horizon has 300 km "as upper bound to the linear dimension of the source region" of occasional X-ray bursts lasting only for about 1 ms.[17]

Cygnus X-1 belongs to a high-mass X-ray binary system, located about 2.22 kiloparsecs from the Sun,[5] that includes a blue supergiant variable star designated HDE 226868,[18] which it orbits at about 0.2 AU, or 20% of the distance from Earth to the Sun. A stellar wind from the star provides material for an accretion disk around the X-ray source.[19] Matter in the inner disk is heated to millions of degrees, generating the observed X-rays.[20][21] A pair of relativistic jets, arranged perpendicularly to the disk, are carrying part of the energy of the infalling material away into interstellar space.[22]

This system may belong to a stellar association called Cygnus OB3, which would mean that Cygnus X-1 is about 5 million years old and formed from a progenitor star that had more than 40 solar masses. The majority of the star's mass was shed, most likely as a stellar wind. If this star had then exploded as a supernova, the resulting force would most likely have ejected the remnant from the system. Hence the star may have instead collapsed directly into a black hole.[23]

Cygnus X-1 was the subject of a friendly scientific wager between physicists Stephen Hawking and Kip Thorne in 1975, with Hawking—betting that it was not a black hole—hoping to lose.[24] Hawking conceded the bet in 1990 after observational data had strengthened the case that there was indeed a black hole in the system. As of 2004, this hypothesis lacked direct empirical evidence but was generally accepted based on indirect evidence.[25]

Discovery and observation

Observation of X-ray emissions allows astronomers to study celestial phenomena involving gas with temperatures in the millions of degrees. However, because X-ray emissions are blocked by Earth's atmosphere, observation of celestial X-ray sources is not possible without lifting instruments to altitudes where the X-rays can penetrate.[26][27] Cygnus X-1 was discovered using X-ray instruments that were carried aloft by a sounding rocket launched from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. As part of an ongoing effort to map these sources, a survey was conducted in 1964 using two Aerobee suborbital rockets. The rockets carried Geiger counters to measure X-ray emission in wavelength range 1–15 Å across an 8.4° section of the sky. These instruments swept across the sky as the rockets rotated, producing a map of closely spaced scans.[11]

As a result of these surveys, eight new sources of cosmic X-rays were discovered, including Cyg XR-1 (later Cyg X-1) in the constellation Cygnus. The celestial coordinates of this source were estimated as right ascension 19h53m and declination 34.6°. It was not associated with any especially prominent radio or optical source at that position.[11]

Seeing a need for longer-duration studies, in 1963 Riccardo Giacconi and Herb Gursky proposed the first orbital satellite to study X-ray sources. NASA launched their Uhuru satellite in 1970,[28] which led to the discovery of 300 new X-ray sources.[29] Extended Uhuru observations of Cygnus X-1 showed fluctuations in the X-ray intensity that occurs several times a second.[30] This rapid variation meant that the X-ray generation must occur over a compact region no larger than ~105 km (roughly the size of Jupiter),[31] as the speed of light restricts communication between more distant regions.

In April–May 1971, Luc Braes and George K. Miley from Leiden Observatory, and independently Robert M. Hjellming and Campbell Wade at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory,[32] detected radio emission from Cygnus X-1, and their accurate radio position pinpointed the X-ray source to the star AGK2 +35 1910 = HDE 226868.[33][34] On the celestial sphere, this star lies about half a degree from the 4th-magnitude star Eta Cygni.[35] It is a supergiant star that is by itself incapable of emitting the observed quantities of X-rays. Hence, the star must have a companion that could heat gas to the millions of degrees needed to produce the radiation source for Cygnus X-1.

Louise Webster and Paul Murdin, at the Royal Greenwich Observatory,[36] and Charles Thomas Bolton, working independently at the University of Toronto's David Dunlap Observatory,[37] announced the discovery of a massive hidden companion to HDE 226868 in 1972. Measurements of the Doppler shift of the star's spectrum demonstrated the companion's presence and allowed its mass to be estimated from the orbital parameters.[38] Based on the high predicted mass of the object, they surmised that it may be a black hole, as the largest possible neutron star cannot exceed three times the mass of the Sun.[39]

With further observations strengthening the evidence, by the end of 1973 the astronomical community generally conceded that Cygnus X-1 was most likely a black hole.[40][41] More precise measurements of Cygnus X-1 demonstrated variability down to a single millisecond. This interval is consistent with turbulence in a disk of accreted matter surrounding a black hole—the accretion disk. X-ray bursts that last for about a third of a second match the expected time frame of matter falling toward a black hole.[42]

X-ray image of Cygnus X-1 taken by a balloon-borne telescope, the High-Energy Replicated Optics (HERO) project

Cygnus X-1 has since been studied extensively using observations by orbiting and ground-based instruments.[2] The similarities between the emissions of X-ray binaries such as HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 and active galactic nuclei suggests a common mechanism of energy generation involving a black hole, an orbiting accretion disk and associated jets.[43] For this reason, Cygnus X-1 is identified among a class of objects called microquasars; an analog of the quasars, or quasi-stellar radio sources, now known to be distant active galactic nuclei. Scientific studies of binary systems such as HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 may lead to further insights into the mechanics of active galaxies.[44]

Binary system

The compact object and blue supergiant star form a binary system in which they orbit around their center of mass every 5.599829 days.[45] From the perspective of Earth, the compact object never goes behind the other star; in other words, the system does not eclipse. However, the inclination of the orbital plane to the line of sight from Earth remains uncertain, with predictions ranging from 27° to 65°. A 2007 study estimated the inclination as 48.0±6.8°, which would mean that the semi-major axis is about 0.2 AU, or 20% of the distance from Earth to the Sun. The orbital eccentricity is thought to be only 0.018±0.002, meaning a nearly circular orbit.[46][47] Earth's distance to this system is calculated by trigonometric parallax as 1,860 ± 120 parsecs (6,070 ± 390 light-years),[48] and by radio astrometry as 2,220 ± 170 parsecs (7,240 ± 550 ly).[5]

A blue-band light curve for Cygnus X-1, adapted from Kemp et al. (1987)[49]

The HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 system shares a common motion through space with an association of massive stars named Cygnus OB3, which is located at roughly 2000 parsecs from the Sun. This implies that HDE 226868, Cygnus X-1 and this OB association may have formed at the same time and location. If so, then the age of the system is about 5±1.5 million years. The motion of HDE 226868 with respect to Cygnus OB3 is 9±3 km/s, a typical value for random motion within a stellar association. HDE 226868 is about 60 parsecs from the center of the association and could have reached that separation in about 7±2 million years—which roughly agrees with estimated age of the association.[23]

With a galactic latitude of 4° and galactic longitude 71°,[2] this system lies inward along the same Orion Spur, in which the Sun is located within the Milky Way,[50] near where the spur approaches the Sagittarius Arm. Cygnus X-1 has been described as belonging to the Sagittarius Arm,[51] though the structure of the Milky Way is not well established.

Compact object

From various techniques, the mass of the compact object appears to be greater than the maximum mass for a neutron star. Stellar evolutionary models suggest a mass of 20±5 solar masses,[7] while other techniques resulted in 10 solar masses. Measuring periodicities in the X-ray emission near the object yielded a more precise value of 14.8±1 solar masses. In all cases, the object is most likely a black hole[46][52]—a region of space with a gravitational field that is strong enough to prevent the escape of electromagnetic radiation from the interior. The boundary of this region is called the event horizon and has an effective radius called the Schwarzschild radius, which is about 44 km for Cygnus X-1. Anything (including matter and photons) that passes through this boundary is unable to escape.[53] New measurements published in 2021 yielded an estimated mass of 21.2±2.2 solar masses.[5][6]

Evidence of just such an event horizon may have been detected in 1992 using ultraviolet (UV) observations with the High Speed Photometer on the Hubble Space Telescope. As self-luminous clumps of matter spiral into a black hole, their radiation is emitted in a series of pulses that are subject to gravitational redshift as the material approaches the horizon. That is, the wavelengths of the radiation steadily increase, as predicted by general relativity. Matter hitting a solid, compact object would emit a final burst of energy, whereas material passing through an event horizon would not. Two such "dying pulse trains" were observed, which is consistent with the existence of a black hole.[54]

Chandra X-ray Observatory image of Cygnus X-1

The spin of the compact object is not yet well determined. Past analysis of data from the space-based Chandra X-ray Observatory suggested that Cygnus X-1 was not rotating to any significant degree.[55][56] However, evidence announced in 2011 suggests that it is rotating extremely rapidly, approximately 790 times per second.[57]

Formation

The largest star in the Cygnus OB3 association has a mass 40 times that of the Sun. As more massive stars evolve more rapidly, this implies that the progenitor star for Cygnus X-1 had more than 40 solar masses. Given the current estimated mass of the black hole, the progenitor star must have lost over 30 solar masses of material. Part of this mass may have been lost to HDE 226868, while the remainder was most likely expelled by a strong stellar wind. The helium enrichment of HDE 226868's outer atmosphere may be evidence for this mass transfer.[58] Possibly the progenitor may have evolved into a Wolf–Rayet star, which ejects a substantial proportion of its atmosphere using just such a powerful stellar wind.[23]

If the progenitor star had exploded as a supernova, then observations of similar objects show that the remnant would most likely have been ejected from the system at a relatively high velocity. As the object remained in orbit, this indicates that the progenitor may have collapsed directly into a black hole without exploding (or at most produced only a relatively modest explosion).[23]

Accretion disk

A Chandra X-ray spectrum of Cygnus X-1 showing a characteristic peak near 6.4 keV due to ionized iron in the accretion disk, but the peak is gravitationally red-shifted, broadened by the Doppler effect, and skewed toward lower energies[59]

The compact object is thought to be orbited by a thin, flat disk of accreting matter known as an accretion disk. This disk is intensely heated by friction between ionized gas in faster-moving inner orbits and that in slower outer ones. It is divided into a hot inner region with a relatively high level of ionization—forming a plasma—and a cooler, less ionized outer region that extends to an estimated 500 times the Schwarzschild radius,[21] or about 15,000 km.

Though highly and erratically variable, Cygnus X-1 is typically the brightest persistent source of hard X-rays—those with energies from about 30 up to several hundred kiloelectronvolts—in the sky.[27] The X-rays are produced as lower-energy photons in the thin inner accretion disk, then given more energy through Compton scattering with very high-temperature electrons in a geometrically thicker, but nearly transparent corona enveloping it, as well as by some further reflection from the surface of the thin disk.[60] An alternative possibility is that the X-rays may be Compton-scattered by the base of a jet instead of a disk corona.[61]

The X-ray emission from Cygnus X-1 can vary in a somewhat repetitive pattern called quasi-periodic oscillations (QPO). The mass of the compact object appears to determine the distance at which the surrounding plasma begins to emit these QPOs, with the emission radius decreasing as the mass decreases. This technique has been used to estimate the mass of Cygnus X-1, providing a cross-check with other mass derivations.[62]

Pulsations with a stable period, similar to those resulting from the spin of a neutron star, have never been seen from Cygnus X-1.[63][64] The pulsations from neutron stars are caused by the neutron star's rotating magnetic field, but the no-hair theorem guarantees that the magnetic field of a black hole is exactly aligned with its rotation axis and thus is static. For example, the X-ray binary V 0332+53 was thought to be a possible black hole until pulsations were found.[65] Cygnus X-1 has also never displayed X-ray bursts similar to those seen from neutron stars.[66] Cygnus X-1 unpredictably changes between two X-ray states, although the X-rays may vary continuously between those states as well. In the most common state, the X-rays are "hard", which means that more of the X-rays have high energy. In the less common state, the X-rays are "soft", with more of the X-rays having lower energy. The soft state also shows greater variability. The hard state is believed to originate in a corona surrounding the inner part of the more opaque accretion disk. The soft state occurs when the disk draws closer to the compact object (possibly as close as 150 km), accompanied by cooling or ejection of the corona. When a new corona is generated, Cygnus X-1 transitions back to the hard state.[67]

The spectral transition of Cygnus X-1 can be explained using a two-component advective flow solution, as proposed by Chakrabarti and Titarchuk.[68] A hard state is generated by the inverse Comptonisation of seed photons from the Keplarian disk and likewise synchrotron photons produced by the hot electrons in the centrifugal-pressure–supported boundary layer (CENBOL).[69]

The X-ray flux from Cygnus X-1 varies periodically every 5.6 days, especially during superior conjunction when the orbiting objects are most closely aligned with Earth and the compact source is the more distant. This indicates that the emissions are being partially blocked by circumstellar matter, which may be the stellar wind from the star HDE 226868. There is a roughly 300-day periodicity in the emission, which could be caused by the precession of the accretion disk.[70]

Jets

As accreted matter falls toward the compact object, it loses gravitational potential energy. Part of this released energy is dissipated by jets of particles, aligned perpendicular to the accretion disk, that flow outward with relativistic velocities (that is, the particles are moving at a significant fraction of the speed of light). This pair of jets provide a means for an accretion disk to shed excess energy and angular momentum. They may be created by magnetic fields within the gas that surrounds the compact object.[71]

The Cygnus X-1 jets are inefficient radiators and so release only a small proportion of their energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. That is, they appear "dark". The estimated angle of the jets to the line of sight is 30°, and they may be precessing.[67] One of the jets is colliding with a relatively dense part of the interstellar medium (ISM), forming an energized ring that can be detected by its radio emission. This collision appears to be forming a nebula that has been observed in the optical wavelengths. To produce this nebula, the jet must have an estimated average power of 4–14×1036 erg/s, or (9±5)×1029 W.[72] This is more than 1,000 times the power emitted by the Sun.[73] There is no corresponding ring in the opposite direction because that jet is facing a lower-density region of the ISM.[74]

In 2006, Cygnus X-1 became the first stellar-mass black hole found to display evidence of gamma-ray emission in the very high-energy band, above 100 GeV. The signal was observed at the same time as a flare of hard X-rays, suggesting a link between the events. The X-ray flare may have been produced at the base of the jet, while the gamma rays could have been generated where the jet interacts with the stellar wind of HDE 226868.[75]

HDE 226868

An artist's impression of the HDE 226868–Cygnus X-1 binary system

HDE 226868 is a supergiant star with a spectral class of O9.7 Iab,[2] which is on the borderline between class-O and class-B stars. It has an estimated surface temperature of 31,000 K[9] and mass approximately 20–40 times the mass of the Sun. Based on a stellar evolutionary model, at the estimated distance of 2,000 parsecs, this star may have a radius equal to about 15–17[46] times the solar radius and has approximately 300,000–400,000 times the luminosity of the Sun.[7][76] For comparison, the compact object is estimated to be orbiting HDE 226868 at a distance of about 40 solar radii, or twice the radius of this star.[77]

The surface of HDE 226868 is being tidally distorted by the gravity of the massive companion, forming a tear-drop shape that is further distorted by rotation. This causes the optical brightness of the star to vary by 0.06 magnitudes during each 5.6-day binary orbit, with the minimum magnitude occurring when the system is aligned with the line of sight.[78] The "ellipsoidal" pattern of light variation results from the limb darkening and gravity darkening of the star's surface.[79]

When the spectrum of HDE 226868 is compared to the similar star Alnilam, the former shows an overabundance of helium and an underabundance of carbon in its atmosphere.[80] The ultraviolet and hydrogen-alpha spectral lines of HDE 226868 show profiles similar to the star P Cygni, which indicates that the star is surrounded by a gaseous envelope that is being accelerated away from the star at speeds of about 1,500 km/s.[81][82]

Like other stars of its spectral type, HDE 226868 is thought to be shedding mass in a stellar wind at an estimated rate of 2.5×10−6 solar masses per year; or one solar mass every 400,000 years.[83] The gravitational influence of the compact object appears to be reshaping this stellar wind, producing a focused wind geometry rather than a spherically symmetrical wind.[77] X-rays from the region surrounding the compact object heat and ionize this stellar wind. As the object moves through different regions of the stellar wind during its 5.6-day orbit, the UV lines,[84] the radio emission,[85] and the X-rays themselves all vary.[86]

The Roche lobe of HDE 226868 defines the region of space around the star where orbiting material remains gravitationally bound. Material that passes beyond this lobe may fall toward the orbiting companion. This Roche lobe is believed to be close to the surface of HDE 226868 but not overflowing, so the material at the stellar surface is not being stripped away by its companion. However, a significant proportion of the stellar wind emitted by the star is being drawn onto the compact object's accretion disk after passing beyond this lobe.[19]

The gas and dust between the Sun and HDE 226868 results in a reduction in the apparent magnitude of the star, as well as a reddening of the hue—red light can more effectively penetrate the dust in the interstellar medium. The estimated value of the interstellar extinction (AV) is 3.3 magnitudes.[87] Without the intervening matter, HDE 226868 would be a fifth-magnitude star,[88] and thus visible to the unaided eye.[89]

Stephen Hawking and Kip Thorne

NASA's "Galaxy of Horrors" poster for Cygnus X-1[90]

Cygnus X-1 was the subject of a bet between physicists Stephen Hawking and Kip Thorne, in which Hawking bet against the existence of black holes in the region. Hawking later described this as an "insurance policy" of sorts. In his book A Brief History of Time he wrote:[91]

This was a form of insurance policy for me. I have done a lot of work on black holes, and it would all be wasted if it turned out that black holes do not exist. But in that case, I would have the consolation of winning my bet, which would win me four years of the magazine Private Eye. If black holes do exist, Kip will get one year of Penthouse. When we made the bet in 1975, we were 80% certain that Cygnus X-1 was a black hole. By now [1988], I would say that we are about 95% certain, but the bet has yet to be settled.

According to the updated tenth-anniversary edition of A Brief History of Time, Hawking has conceded the bet[92] due to subsequent observational data in favor of black holes. In his own book Black Holes and Time Warps, Thorne reports that Hawking conceded the bet by breaking into Thorne's office while he was in Russia, finding the framed bet, and signing it.[93] While Hawking referred to the bet as taking place in 1975, the written bet itself (in Thorne's handwriting, with his and Hawking's signatures) bears additional witness signatures under a legend stating "Witnessed this tenth day of December 1974".[94] This date was confirmed by Kip Thorne on the January 10, 2018 episode of Nova on PBS.[95]

Cygnus X-1 is the subject of a two-part song series by Canadian progressive rock band Rush. The first part, "Book I: The Voyage", is the last song on the 1977 album A Farewell to Kings. The second part, "Book II: Hemispheres", is the first song on the following 1978 album, Hemispheres. The lyrics describe an explorer aboard the spaceship Rocinante, who travels to the black hole, believing that there may be something beyond it. As he moves closer, it becomes increasingly difficult to control the ship, and he is eventually drawn in by the pull of gravity.[96]

In the 1979 Disney live-action science fiction film The Black Hole, the scientific survey ship captained by Dr. Hans Reinhardt to study the black hole of the film's title is the Cygnus, presumably (although never stated as such) named for the first-identified black hole, Cygnus X-1.[97]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d Vallenari, A.; et al. (Gaia collaboration) (2023). "Gaia Data Release 3. Summary of the content and survey properties". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 674: A1. arXiv:2208.00211. Bibcode:2023A&A...674A...1G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202243940. S2CID 244398875. Gaia DR3 record for this source at VizieR.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g V* V1357 Cyg – High Mass X-ray Binary, Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg, March 3, 2003, retrieved 2008-03-03
  3. ^ a b Bregman, J.; Butler, D.; Kemper, E.; Koski, A.; Kraft, R. P.; Stone, R. P. S. (1973), "Colors, magnitudes, spectral types and distances for stars in the field of the X-ray source Cyg X-1", Lick Observatory Bulletin, 647: 1, Bibcode:1973LicOB..24....1B
  4. ^ Ninkov, Z.; Walker, G. A. H.; Yang, S. (1987), "The primary orbit and the absorption lines of HDE 226868 (Cygnus X-1)", Astrophysical Journal, 321: 425–437, Bibcode:1987ApJ...321..425N, doi:10.1086/165641, archived from the original on 2017-09-22, retrieved 2018-11-04
  5. ^ a b c d e Miller-Jones, James C. A.; Bahramian, Arash; et al. (2021-03-05). "Cygnus X-1 contains a 21–solar mass black hole—Implications for massive star winds". Science. 371 (6533): 1046–1049. arXiv:2102.09091. Bibcode:2021Sci...371.1046M. doi:10.1126/science.abb3363. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 33602863. S2CID 231951746.
  6. ^ a b c Overbye, Dennis (18 February 2021). "A Famous Black Hole Gets a Massive Update – Cygnus X-1, one of the first identified black holes, is much weightier than expected, raising new questions about how such objects form". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
  7. ^ a b c d Ziółkowski, J. (2005), "Evolutionary constraints on the masses of the components of HDE 226868/Cyg X-1 binary system", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 358 (3): 851–859, arXiv:astro-ph/0501102, Bibcode:2005MNRAS.358..851Z, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08796.x, S2CID 119334761 Note: for radius and luminosity, see Table 1 with d=2 kpc.
  8. ^ Hadrava, Petr (September 15–21, 2007), "Optical spectroscopy of Cyg X-1", Proceedings of RAGtime 8/9: Workshops on Black Holes and Neutron Stars, Opava, Czech Republic: 71, arXiv:0710.0758, Bibcode:2007ragt.meet...71H
  9. ^ a b Integral's view of Cygnus X-1, ESA, June 10, 2003, retrieved 2008-03-20
  10. ^ Wong, Tsing-Wai; Valsecchi, Francesca; Fragos, Tassos; Kalogera, Vassiliki (February 22, 2012), "Understanding Compact Object Formation And Natal Kicks. III. The Case Of Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 747 (2), American Astronomical Society: 12, arXiv:1107.5585, Bibcode:2012ApJ...747..111W, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/747/2/111, S2CID 119097709
  11. ^ a b c Bowyer, S.; Byram, E. T.; Chubb, T. A.; Friedman, H. (1965), "Cosmic X-ray Sources", Science, 147 (3656): 394–398, Bibcode:1965Sci...147..394B, doi:10.1126/science.147.3656.394, PMID 17832788, S2CID 206565068
  12. ^ Observations: Seeing in X-ray wavelengths, ESA, 2004-11-05, retrieved 2008-08-12
  13. ^ Glister, Paul (2011-11-29). "Cygnus X-1: A Black Hole Confirmed". Centauri Dreams: Imagining and Planning Interstellar Exploration. Retrieved 2024-09-06.
  14. ^ Lewin, Walter; Van Der Klis, Michiel (2006), Compact Stellar X-ray Sources, Cambridge University Press, p. 159, ISBN 0-521-82659-4
  15. ^ "2010 X-Ray Sources", The Astronomical Almanac, U.S. Naval Observatory, archived from the original on 2010-03-28, retrieved 2009-08-04 gives a range of 235–1320 μJy at energies of 2–10 kEv, where a Jansky (Jy) is 10−26 Wm−2 Hz−1.
  16. ^ The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Universe. New York, NY: Watson-Guptill. 2001. p. 175. ISBN 0-8230-2512-8.
  17. ^ Harko, T. (June 28, 2006), Black Holes, University of Hong Kong, archived from the original on February 10, 2009, retrieved 2008-03-28
  18. ^ Ziolkowski, Janusz (2014). "Masses of the components of the HDE 226868/Cyg X-1 binary system". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 440: L61. arXiv:1401.1035. Bibcode:2014MNRAS.440L..61Z. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slu002. S2CID 54841624.
  19. ^ a b Gies, D. R.; Bolton, C. T. (1986), "The optical spectrum of HDE 226868 = Cygnus X-1. II — Spectrophotometry and mass estimates", The Astrophysical Journal, 304: 371–393, Bibcode:1986ApJ...304..371G, doi:10.1086/164171
  20. ^ Nayakshin, Sergei; Dove, James B. (November 3, 1998), "X-rays From Magnetic Flares In Cygnus X-1: The Role Of A Transition Layer", arXiv:astro-ph/9811059
  21. ^ a b Young, A. J.; Fabian, A. C.; Ross, R. R.; Tanaka, Y. (2001), "A Complete Relativistic Ionized Accretion Disc in Cygnus X-1", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 325 (3): 1045–1052, arXiv:astro-ph/0103214, Bibcode:2001MNRAS.325.1045Y, doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04498.x, S2CID 14226526
  22. ^ Gallo, Elena; Fender, Rob (2005), "Accretion modes and jet production in black hole X-ray binaries", Memorie della Società Astronomica Italiana, 76: 600–607, arXiv:astro-ph/0509172, Bibcode:2005MmSAI..76..600G
  23. ^ a b c d Mirabel, I. Félix; Rodrigues, Irapuan (2003), "Formation of a Black Hole in the Dark", Science, 300 (5622): 1119–1120, arXiv:astro-ph/0305205, Bibcode:2003Sci...300.1119M, doi:10.1126/science.1083451, PMID 12714674, S2CID 45544180
  24. ^ "Inside Einstein's Mind". Nova. Season 42. Episode 23. 25 Nov 2015. Event occurs at 43:54. PBS. Kip Thorne: Stephen Hawking had a terribly deep investment in it actually being a black hole, and so he made the bet against himself as an insurance policy, so at least he would get something out of it, if Cygnus X-1 turned out not to be a black hole.
  25. ^ Galaxy Entree or Main Course?, Swinburne University, February 27, 2004, retrieved 2008-03-31
  26. ^ Herbert, Friedman (2002), "From the ionosphere to high energy astronomy – a personal experience", The Century of Space Science, Springer, ISBN 0-7923-7196-8
  27. ^ a b Liu, C. Z.; Li, T. P. (2004), "X-Ray Spectral Variability in Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 611 (2): 1084–1090, arXiv:astro-ph/0405246, Bibcode:2004ApJ...611.1084L, doi:10.1086/422209, S2CID 208868049
  28. ^ The Uhuru Satellite, NASA, June 26, 2003, retrieved 2008-05-09
  29. ^ Giacconi, Riccardo (December 8, 2002), The Dawn of X-Ray Astronomy, The Nobel Foundation, retrieved 2008-03-24
  30. ^ Oda, M.; Gorenstein, P.; Gursky, H.; Kellogg, E.; Schreier, E.; Tananbaum, H.; Giacconi, R. (1999), "X-Ray Pulsations from Cygnus X-1 Observed from UHURU", The Astrophysical Journal, 166: L1–L7, Bibcode:1971ApJ...166L...1O, doi:10.1086/180726
  31. ^ This is the distance light can travel in a third of a second.
  32. ^ Kristian, J.; Brucato, R.; Visvanathan, N.; Lanning, H.; Sandage, A. (1971), "On the Optical Identification of Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 168: L91–L93, Bibcode:1971ApJ...168L..91K, doi:10.1086/180790
  33. ^ Braes, L. L. E.; Miley, G. K. (July 23, 1971), "Physical Sciences: Detection of Radio Emission from Cygnus X-1", Nature, 232 (5308): 246, Bibcode:1971Natur.232Q.246B, doi:10.1038/232246a0, PMID 16062947, S2CID 33340308
  34. ^ Braes, L. L. E.; Miley, G. K. (1971), "Variable Radio Emission from X-Ray Sources", Veröffentlichungen Remeis-Sternwarte Bamberg, 9 (100): 173, Bibcode:1972VeBam.100......
  35. ^ Abrams, Bernard; Stecker, Michael (1999), Structures in Space: Hidden Secrets of the Deep Sky, Springer, p. 91, ISBN 1-85233-165-8, Eta Cygni is 25 arc minutes to the west-south-west of this star.
  36. ^ Webster, B. Louise; Murdin, Paul (1972), "Cygnus X-1—a Spectroscopic Binary with a Heavy Companion?", Nature, 235 (5332): 37–38, Bibcode:1972Natur.235...37W, doi:10.1038/235037a0, S2CID 4195462
  37. ^ Bolton, C. T. (1972), "Identification of Cygnus X-1 with HDE 226868", Nature, 235 (5336): 271–273, Bibcode:1972Natur.235..271B, doi:10.1038/235271b0, S2CID 4222070
  38. ^ Luminet, Jean-Pierre (1992), Black Holes, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-40906-3
  39. ^ Bombaci, I. (1996), "The maximum mass of a neutron star", Astronomy and Astrophysics, 305: 871–877, arXiv:astro-ph/9608059, Bibcode:1996A&A...305..871B, doi:10.1086/310296, S2CID 119085893
  40. ^ Rolston, Bruce (November 10, 1997), The First Black Hole, University of Toronto, archived from the original on March 7, 2008, retrieved 2008-03-11
  41. ^ Shipman, H. L.; Yu, Z.; Du, Y. W. (1975), "The implausible history of triple star models for Cygnus X-1 Evidence for a black hole", Astrophysical Letters, 16 (1): 9–12, Bibcode:1975ApL....16....9S, doi:10.1016/S0304-8853(99)00384-4
  42. ^ Rothschild, R. E.; Boldt, E. A.; Holt, S. S.; Serlemitsos, P. J. (1974), "Millisecond Temporal Structure in Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 189: 77–115, Bibcode:1974ApJ...189L..13R, doi:10.1086/181452
  43. ^ Koerding, Elmar; Jester, Sebastian; Fender, Rob (2006), "Accretion states and radio loudness in Active Galactic Nuclei: analogies with X-ray binaries", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 372 (3): 1366–1378, arXiv:astro-ph/0608628, Bibcode:2006MNRAS.372.1366K, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10954.x, S2CID 14833297
  44. ^ Brainerd, Jim (July 20, 2005), X-rays from AGNs, The Astrophysics Spectator, retrieved 2008-03-24
  45. ^ Brocksopp, C.; Tarasov, A. E.; Lyuty, V. M.; Roche, P. (1999), "An Improved Orbital Ephemeris for Cygnus X-1", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 343: 861–864, arXiv:astro-ph/9812077, Bibcode:1999A&A...343..861B
  46. ^ a b c Orosz, Jerome (December 1, 2011), "The Mass of the Black Hole In Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 742 (2): 84, arXiv:1106.3689, Bibcode:2011ApJ...742...84O, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/742/2/84, S2CID 18732012
  47. ^ Bolton, C. T. (1975), "Optical observations and model for Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 200: 269–277, Bibcode:1975ApJ...200..269B, doi:10.1086/153785
  48. ^ Reid, Mark J.; McClintock, Jeffrey E.; Narayan, Ramesh; Gou, Lijun; Remillard, Ronald A.; Orosz, Jerome A. (December 2011), "The Trigonometric Parallax of Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 742 (2): 83, arXiv:1106.3688, Bibcode:2011ApJ...742...83R, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/742/2/83, S2CID 96429771
  49. ^ Kemp, J. C.; Karitskaya, E. A.; Kumsiashvili, M. I.; Lyutyi, V. M.; Cherepashchuk, A. M. (April 1987). "Longperiod Optical Variability of the CYGNUS-X-1 System". Soviet Astronomy. 31 (2): 170. Bibcode:1987SvA....31..170K. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
  50. ^ Gursky, H.; Gorenstein, P.; Kerr, F. J.; Grayzeck, E. J. (1971), "The Estimated Distance to Cygnus X-1 Based on its Low-Energy X-Ray Spectrum", Astrophysical Journal, 167: L15, Bibcode:1971ApJ...167L..15G, doi:10.1086/180751
  51. ^ Goebel, Greg, 7.0 The Milky Way Galaxy, In The Public Domain, archived from the original on 2008-06-12, retrieved 2008-06-29
  52. ^ Strohmayer, Tod; Shaposhnikov, Nikolai; Schartel, Norbert (May 16, 2007), New technique for 'weighing' black holes, ESA, retrieved 2008-03-10
  53. ^ Scientists find black hole's 'point of no return', Massachusetts Institute of Technology, January 9, 2006, archived from the original on 13 January 2006, retrieved 2008-03-28
  54. ^ Dolan, Joseph F. (2001), "Dying Pulse Trains in Cygnus XR-1: Evidence for an Event Horizon?", The Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 113 (786): 974–982, Bibcode:2001PASP..113..974D, doi:10.1086/322917
  55. ^ Miller, J. M.; Fabian, A. C.; Nowak, M. A.; Lewin, W. H. G. (July 20–26, 2003), "Relativistic Iron Lines in Galactic Black Holes: Recent Results and Lines in the ASCA Archive", Proceedings of the 10th Annual Marcel Grossmann Meeting on General Relativity, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, p. 1296, arXiv:astro-ph/0402101, Bibcode:2006tmgm.meet.1296M, doi:10.1142/9789812704030_0093, ISBN 9789812566676, S2CID 119336501{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  56. ^ Roy, Steve; Watzke, Megan (September 17, 2003), ""Iron-Clad" Evidence For Spinning Black Hole", Chandra Press Release, Chandra press Room: 21, Bibcode:2003cxo..pres...21., retrieved 2008-03-11
  57. ^ Gou, Lijun; McClintock, Jeffrey E.; Reid, Mark J.; Orosz, Jerome A.; Steiner, James F.; Narayan, Ramesh; Xiang, Jingen; Remillard, Ronald A.; Arnaud, Keith A.; Davis, Shane W. (November 9, 2011), "The Extreme Spin of the Black Hole in Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 742 (85), American Astronomical Society: 85, arXiv:1106.3690, Bibcode:2011ApJ...742...85G, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/742/2/85, S2CID 16525257
  58. ^ Podsiadlowski, Philipp; Saul, Rappaport; Han, Zhanwen (2003), "On the formation and evolution of black-hole binaries", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 341 (2): 385–404, arXiv:astro-ph/0207153, Bibcode:2003MNRAS.341..385P, doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06464.x, S2CID 119476943
  59. ^ More Images of Cygnus X-1, XTE J1650-500 & GX 339-4, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics/Chandra X-ray Center, August 30, 2006, retrieved 2008-03-30
  60. ^ Ling, J. C.; Wheaton, Wm. A.; Wallyn, P.; Mahoney, W. A.; Paciesas, W. S.; Harmon, B. A.; Fishman, G. J.; Zhang, S. N.; Hua, X. M. (1997), "Gamma-Ray Spectra and Variability of Cygnus X-1 Observed by BATSE", The Astrophysical Journal, 484 (1): 375–382, Bibcode:1997ApJ...484..375L, doi:10.1086/304323
  61. ^ Kylafis, N.; Giannios, D.; Psaltis, D. (2006), "Spectra and time variability of black-hole binaries in the low/hard state", Advances in Space Research, 38 (12): 2810–2812, Bibcode:2006AdSpR..38.2810K, doi:10.1016/j.asr.2005.09.045
  62. ^ Titarchuk, Lev; Shaposhnikov, Nikolai (February 9, 2008), "On the nature of the variability power decay towards soft spectral states in X-ray binaries. Case study in Cyg X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 678 (2): 1230–1236, arXiv:0802.1278, Bibcode:2008ApJ...678.1230T, doi:10.1086/587124, S2CID 5195999
  63. ^ Fabian, A. C.; Miller, J. M. (August 9, 2002), "Black Holes Reveal Their Innermost Secrets", Science, 297 (5583): 947–948, doi:10.1126/science.1074957, PMID 12169716, S2CID 118027201
  64. ^ Wen, Han Chin (March 1998), Ten Microsecond Time Resolution Studies of Cygnus X-1, Stanford University, p. 6, Bibcode:1997PhDT.........6W
  65. ^ Stella, L.; White, N. E.; Davelaar, J.; Parmar, A. N.; Blissett, R. J.; van der Klis, M. (1985), "The discovery of 4.4 second X-ray pulsations from the rapidly variable X-ray transient V0332 + 53" (PDF), Astrophysical Journal Letters, 288: L45–L49, Bibcode:1985ApJ...288L..45S, doi:10.1086/184419
  66. ^ Narayan, Ramesh (2003), "Evidence for the black hole event horizon", Astronomy & Geophysics, 44 (6): 77–115, arXiv:gr-qc/0204080, Bibcode:2003A&G....44f..22N, doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.44622.x
  67. ^ a b Torres, Diego F.; Romero, Gustavo E.; Barcons, Xavier; Lu, Youjun (2005), "Probing the Precession of the Inner Accretion Disk in Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 626 (2): 1015–1019, arXiv:astro-ph/0503186, Bibcode:2005ApJ...626.1015T, doi:10.1086/430125, S2CID 16569507
  68. ^ Chakrabarti, Sandip; Titarchuk, Lev G. (December 1995). "Spectral Properties of Accretion Disks around Galactic and Extragalactic Black Holes". The Astrophysical Journal. 455: 623. arXiv:astro-ph/9510005v2. Bibcode:1995ApJ...455..623C. doi:10.1086/176610. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 18151304.
  69. ^ Chakrabarti, Sandip K.; Mandal, Samir (2006). "The Spectral Properties of Shocked Two-Component Accretion Flows in the Presence of Synchrotron Emission". The Astrophysical Journal. 642 (1): L49–L52. Bibcode:2006ApJ...642L..49C. doi:10.1086/504319. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 122610073.
  70. ^ Kitamoto, S.; E. Wataru, E.; Miyamoto, S.; Tsunemi, H.; Ling, J. C.; Wheaton, W. A.; Paul, B. (2000), "GINGA All-Sky Monitor Observations of Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 531 (1): 546–552, Bibcode:2000ApJ...531..546K, doi:10.1086/308423
  71. ^ Begelman, Mitchell C. (2003), "Evidence for Black Holes", Science, 300 (5627): 1898–1903, Bibcode:2003Sci...300.1898B, doi:10.1126/science.1085334, PMID 12817138, S2CID 46107747
  72. ^ Russell, D. M.; Fender, R. P.; Gallo, E.; Kaiser, C. R. (2007), "The jet-powered optical nebula of Cygnus X-1", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 376 (3): 1341–1349, arXiv:astro-ph/0701645, Bibcode:2007MNRAS.376.1341R, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11539.x, S2CID 18689655
  73. ^ Sackmann, I.-Juliana; Boothroyd, Arnold I.; Kraemer, Kathleen E. (1993), "Our Sun. III. Present and Future", The Astrophysical Journal, 418: 457–468, Bibcode:1993ApJ...418..457S, doi:10.1086/173407
  74. ^ Gallo, E.; Fender, Rob; Kaiser, Christian; Russell, David; Morganti, Raffaella; Oosterloo, Tom; Heinz, Sebastian (2005), "A dark jet dominates the power output of the stellar black hole Cygnus X-1", Nature, 436 (7052): 819–821, arXiv:astro-ph/0508228, Bibcode:2005Natur.436..819G, doi:10.1038/nature03879, PMID 16094361, S2CID 4404783
  75. ^ Albert, J.; et al. (2007), "Very High Energy Gamma-ray Radiation from the Stellar-mass Black Hole Cygnus X-1", Astrophysical Journal Letters, 665 (1): L51–L54, arXiv:0706.1505, Bibcode:2007ApJ...665L..51A, doi:10.1086/521145, S2CID 15302221
  76. ^ Iorio, Lorenzo (2008), "On the orbital and physical parameters of the HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1 binary system", Astrophysics and Space Science, 315 (1–4): 335–340, arXiv:0707.3525, Bibcode:2008Ap&SS.315..335I, doi:10.1007/s10509-008-9839-y, S2CID 7759638
  77. ^ a b Miller, J. M.; Wojdowski, P.; Schulz, N. S.; Marshall, H. L.; Fabian, A. C.; Remillard, R. A.; Wijnands, R.; Lewin, W. H. G. (2005), "Revealing the Focused Companion Wind in Cygnus X-1 with Chandra", The Astrophysical Journal, 620 (1): 398–404, arXiv:astro-ph/0208463, Bibcode:2005ApJ...620..398M, doi:10.1086/426701, S2CID 51806148
  78. ^ Caballero, M. D. (16–20 February 2004), "OMC-INTEGRAL: Optical Observations of X-Ray Sources", Proceedings of the 5th INTEGRAL Workshop on the INTEGRAL Universe (ESA SP-552). 16–20 February 2004, 552, Munich, Germany: ESA: 875–878, Bibcode:2004ESASP.552..875C
  79. ^ Cox, Arthur C. (2001), Allen's Astrophysical Quantities, Springer, p. 407, ISBN 0-387-95189-X
  80. ^ Canalizo, G.; Koenigsberger, G.; Peña, D.; Ruiz, E. (1995), "Spectral variations and a classical curve-of-growth analysis of HDE 226868 (Cyg X-1)", Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, 31 (1): 63–86, Bibcode:1995RMxAA..31...63C
  81. ^ Conti, P. S. (1978), "Stellar parameters of five early type companions of X-ray sources", Astronomy and Astrophysics, 63: 225, Bibcode:1978A&A....63..225C
  82. ^ Sowers, J. W.; Gies, D. R.; Bagnuolo, W. G.; Shafter, A. W.; Wiemker, R.; Wiggs, M. S. (1998), "Tomographic Analysis of Hα Profiles in HDE 226868/Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 506 (1): 424–430, Bibcode:1998ApJ...506..424S, doi:10.1086/306246
  83. ^ Hutchings, J. B. (1976), "Stellar winds from hot supergiants", The Astrophysical Journal, 203: 438–447, Bibcode:1976ApJ...203..438H, doi:10.1086/154095
  84. ^ Vrtilek, Saeqa D.; Hunacek, A.; Boroson, B. S. (2006), "X-Ray Ionization Effects on the Stellar Wind of Cygnus X-1", Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, 38: 334, Bibcode:2006HEAD....9.0131V
  85. ^ Pooley, G. G.; Fender, R. P.; Brocksopp, C. (1999), "Orbital modulation and longer-term variability in the radio emission from Cygnus X-1", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 302 (1): L1–L5, arXiv:astro-ph/9809305, Bibcode:1999MNRAS.302L...1P, doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02225.x, S2CID 2123824
  86. ^ Gies, D. R.; Bolton, C. T.; Thomson, J. R.; Huang, W.; McSwain, M. V.; Riddle, R. L.; Wang, Z.; Wiita, P. J.; Wingert, D. W.; Csák, B.; Kiss, L. L. (2003), "Wind Accretion and State Transitions in Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 583 (1): 424–436, arXiv:astro-ph/0206253, Bibcode:2003ApJ...583..424G, doi:10.1086/345345, S2CID 6241544
  87. ^ Margon, Bruce; Bowyer, Stuart; Stone, Remington P. S. (1973), "On the Distance to Cygnus X-1", The Astrophysical Journal, 185 (2): L113–L116, Bibcode:1973ApJ...185L.113M, doi:10.1086/181333
  88. ^ Interstellar Reddening, Swinburne University of Technology, retrieved 2006-08-10
  89. ^ Kaler, Jim, Cygnus X-1, University of Illinois, retrieved 2008-03-19
  90. ^ "Devoured by Gravity". NASA. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
  91. ^ Hawking, Stephen (1988), A Brief History of Time, Bantam Books, ISBN 0-553-05340-X
  92. ^ Hawking, Stephen (1998), A Brief History of Time (Updated and Expanded Tenth Anniversary ed.), Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, ISBN 0-553-38016-8
  93. ^ Thorne, Kip (1994), Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-31276-3
  94. ^ Vaughan, Simon. "Hawking Thorne wager". University of Leicester. Archived from the original on 13 May 2020. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
  95. ^ "Black Hole Apocalypse". PBS.org. 10 January 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2018.
  96. ^ Berti, Jim; Bowman, Durrell, eds. (2011). Rush and philosophy: heart and mind united. Popular culture and philosophy. Chicago: Open Court. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-8126-9716-2.
  97. ^ Hogan, David J. (2006). Hogan, David J. (ed.). Science fiction America: essays on SF cinema. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. p. 231. ISBN 978-0-7864-2149-7.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cygnus X-1.
Records
Preceded by
None
Cyg X-1 is the first black hole discovered
Least distant black hole
1972—1986 		Succeeded by

Read other articles:

One Fine Day (film)

One Fine Day 2Film posterSutradaraAsep KusdinarProduserSukhdev SinghWicky V. OlindoDitulis olehSukhdev SinghTisa TSPemeranMichelle ZiudithJefri NicholMaxime BouttierAmanda RawlesIbnu JamilDimaz AndreanSurya SaputraPenata musikJoseph S. DjafarSinematograferRama HermawanPenyuntingWawan I. WibowoPerusahaanproduksiScreenplay FilmsTanggal rilis12 Oktober 2017Durasi97 MenitNegara IndonesiaBahasaBahasa Indonesia Bahasa Inggris Bahasa SpanyolPendapatankotorRp 20,4 miliarOne Fine Day merupa...

 

 

Fleur du Maquis

Fleur du MaquisNama lainBrin d'amourNegara asalPrancisWilayahKorsikaSumber susuDombaDipasteurisasiTidakSertifikasiTidak[1] Fleur du Maquis atau dikenal juga sebagai Brin d'amour adalah keju dari daerah Korsika di negara Prancis yang dibuat dengan menggunakan susu domba mentah.[1] Nama keju ini memiliki arti bunga dari maquis yang merupakan julukan untuk daerah Korsika.[2] Maquis merupakan istilah untuk semak-semak dimana perampok sering berkumpul.[3] Susu yang ...

 

 

60th Fighter Squadron

This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (December 2017) 60th Fighter Squadron An F-35A Lightning II of the 33rd Fighter Wing maneuvers into position to refuel with a KC-135 StratotankerActive1941–1945; 1946–1971; 1971–2009; 2021-presentCountry United StatesBranch United States Air ForceRoleFighterSizesquadronPart ofAir...

Zhongzhou Reef

Disputed reef in the South China Sea Zhongzhou Reef / Ban Than ReefDisputed reefZhongzhou ReefZhongzhou Reef / Ban Than ReefOther namesZhōngzhōu jiāo (中洲礁) (Chinese)Bãi Bàn Than (Vietnamese)GeographyLocationSouth China SeaCoordinates10°23′10″N 114°24′49″E / 10.38611°N 114.41361°E / 10.38611; 114.41361ArchipelagoSpratly IslandsLength100 m (300 ft)Width100 m (300 ft)Administration Taiwan [1][2]MunicipalityCi...

 

 

Pro League 2008-2009

Questa voce o sezione sull'argomento competizioni calcistiche non è ancora formattata secondo gli standard. Contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di Wikipedia. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Pro League 2008-2009Jupiler Pro League 2008-2009 Competizione Pro League Sport Calcio Edizione 106ª Organizzatore URBSFA/KBVB Date dal 16 agosto 2008al 16 maggio 2009 Luogo  Belgio Partecipanti 18 Risultati Vincitore  Standard Liegi(10º titolo) Ret...

 

 

Человек прямоходящий

† Человек прямоходящий Научная классификация Домен:ЭукариотыЦарство:ЖивотныеПодцарство:ЭуметазоиБез ранга:Двусторонне-симметричныеБез ранга:ВторичноротыеТип:ХордовыеПодтип:ПозвоночныеИнфратип:ЧелюстноротыеНадкласс:ЧетвероногиеКлада:АмниотыКлада:Синапсиды�...

Pajala (perahu)

Perahu gaya pajala Bugis-Makassar berujung ganda dengan tiang tripod dan layar miring persegi (beberapa di antaranya diturunkan dan disimpan di geladak), serta kemudi quarter yang digantung. Gambar ini dibuat tahun 1803 oleh seniman William Westall tentang perahu Bugis di pesisir pantai Arnhem, Australia. Kesempatan itu datang ketika Flinders bertemu dengan armada perahu Bugis yang datang dari Makassar ketika mereka mengumpulkan teripang. Perahu ini memiliki bobot 25 ton dan dipersenjatai den...

 

 

Schondra

Schondra Lambang kebesaranLetak Schondra di Bad Kissingen NegaraJermanNegara bagianBayernWilayahUnterfrankenKreisBad KissingenMunicipal assoc.Bad Brückenau Subdivisions2 OrtsteilePemerintahan • MayorKlemens MarkertLuas • Total28,61 km2 (1,105 sq mi)Ketinggian432 m (1,417 ft)Populasi (2013-12-31)[1] • Total1.707 • Kepadatan0,60/km2 (1,5/sq mi)Zona waktuWET/WMPET (UTC+1/+2)Kode pos97795Kode area telepon0...

 

 

MS Swaminathan Research Foundation

The M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) is a nonprofit NGO trust based in Chennai, India. It develops and promotes strategies for economic growth that directly target increased employment of poor women in rural areas. Their methods maximize the use of science and technology for equitable and sustainable social development and environmental stability. The MSSRF logo signifies continuity and change, invoking the DNA model of open-ended, many-sided, and continuous evolution. Be the ch...

مديرية أمن الحدود (الأردن)

قوات حرس الحدود الدولة  الأردن الإنشاء 2012 جزء من القوات البرية الملكية الأردنية تعديل مصدري - تعديل   قيادة قوات حرس الحدود أو قوات حرس الحدود هي القوة النظامية المسؤولة عن تأمين وحماية حدود المملكة الأردنية الهاشمية والبالغ طولها 1635 كيل. حرس الحدود الأردني هي قوات من...

 

 

Tony Dalton

Tony DaltonDalton pada 2021LahirÁlvaro Luis Bernat Dalton[1]13 Februari 1975 (umur 49)[1]Laredo, Texas, AS[1]KebangsaanAmerika Serikat, MeksikoPendidikanLee Strasberg Theatre Institute[1]PekerjaanAktorpenulis skenarioTahun aktif2000–sekarang Álvaro Luis Bernat Dalton (lahir 13 Februari 1975),[1] dikenal secara profesional sebagai Tony Dalton, adalah aktor berkebangsaan Amerika Serikat dan Meksiko. Sebagian besar kariernya, ia bermain dala...

 

 

Bambu kuning

Bambu Kuning Bambu kuning (Bambusa vulgaris var. striata) adalah salah satu jenis bambu peliharaan / budidaya.[1] Bambu jenis ini memiliki ciri batang yang beruas-ruas, tinggi, dan batangnya berwarna kuning.[1] Biasanya, bambu jenis ini hidup di lingkungan tropis.[1] Di kawasan Asia Tenggara, bambu jenis ini banyak dibudidayakan.[1] Ia sering dijumpai di desa-desa, di pinggir-pinggir sungai, dan sebagai tanaman hiasan di perkotaan.[1] Pohon Bambu Kuning...

Pundrik Ashram

Ashram of Vedic sage Pundrik Pundrik AshramSita KundMonastery informationEstablishedSage PundrikDedicated toVedas, Cosmic deeds of VedasPeopleFounder(s)Sage PundrikArchitectureHeritage designationAncient Mithila UniversitySiteLocationPunauradham, Sitamarhi district, Mithila region , BiharCountryIndiaVisible remainsSita Kund, Pundakeshwar Mahadev Mandir Pundrik Ashram is a Hindu monastery related to the Vedic sage Pundrik. The sage Pundrik was an Indian sage mentioned in the Indian religious t...

 

 

Charles Mathias

American politician from Maryland Senator Mathias redirects here. For other uses, see Senator Mathias (disambiguation). Charles MathiasMathias in February 1969Chair of the Senate Rules CommitteeIn officeJanuary 3, 1981 – January 3, 1987Preceded byClaiborne PellSucceeded byWendell FordUnited States Senatorfrom MarylandIn officeJanuary 3, 1969 – January 3, 1987Preceded byDaniel BrewsterSucceeded byBarbara MikulskiMember of the U.S. House of Representativesfrom ...

 

 

Han Bennink

Dutch drummer Han BenninkBennink at INNtöne Jazzfestival 2019Background informationBorn (1942-04-17) 17 April 1942 (age 82)OriginZaandam, the NetherlandsGenresEuropean free jazzAvant-garde jazzFree improvisationOccupation(s)MusicianInstrument(s)Drums, percussionMusical artist Han Bennink (born 17 April 1942) is a Dutch drummer and percussionist.[1] On occasion his recordings have featured him playing soprano saxophone, bass clarinet, trombone, violin, banjo and piano. Though per...

Amplitude and phase-shift keying

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Amplitude and phase-shift keying – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Passband modulation Analog modulation AM FM PM QAM SM SSB Digital modulation ASK APSK CPM FSK MFSK MSK OOK PPM PSK QAM SC-FD...

 

 

Fool's Mate (album)

1971 studio album by Peter HammillFool's MateStudio album by Peter HammillReleasedJuly 1971 (1971-07)Recorded20–28 April 1971StudioTrident, LondonGenreArt rockLength44:28LabelCharismaProducerJohn AnthonyPeter Hammill chronology Fool's Mate(1971) Chameleon in the Shadow of the Night(1973) Fool's Mate is the debut solo album by Peter Hammill of progressive rock band Van der Graaf Generator. The title is both a chess and tarot reference. It was produced by Trident Studios' i...

 

 

Kawaii

Japanese culture of cuteness Not to be confused with Hawaii, Kauai, Kawai, or Kawhi. Top to bottom, left to right: shelf of decorated tea kettles; food served at a maid cafe; Hello Kitty on a sign in Ikebukuro, Tokyo; mobile phone charm attached to a pink Palm Centro Kawaii (Japanese: かわいい or 可愛い, [kawaiꜜi]; cute or adorable) is a Japanese cultural phenomenon which emphasizes cuteness, childlike innocence, charm, and simplicity. Kawaii culture began to flourish in the ...

Polar modulation

Modulation allowing for multiple signals on a line Passband modulation Analog modulation AM FM PM QAM SM SSB Digital modulation ASK APSK CPM FSK MFSK MSK OOK PPM PSK QAM SC-FDE TCM WDM Hierarchical modulation QAM WDM Spread spectrum CSS DSSS FHSS THSS See also Capacity-approaching codes Demodulation Line coding Modem AnM PoM PAM PCM PDM PWM ΔΣM OFDM FDM Multiplexing vte Polar modulation is analogous to quadrature modulation in the same way that polar coordinates are analogous to Cartesian c...

 

 

Ферфакс, Томас

Даты в этой статье приведены по юлианскому календарю. Томас Ферфакс, 3-й лорд Ферфакс из Камеронаангл. Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax of Cameron 3-й лорд Ферфакс из Камерона 14 марта 1648 — 12 ноября 1671 Предшественник Фердинандо Ферфакс, 2-й лорд Ферфакс из Камерона (отец) Преемник Генри Фер...