It was the descendant of the Unetice culture. Its heartland was the area previously occupied by the Unetice culture, and its territory included parts of Germany, the Czech Republic, Austria, Switzerland, the Carpathian Basin, Poland and France. It was succeeded by the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture and part of the origin of the Italic and Celtic cultures.[1]
Artefacts and characteristics
Women's attire from Schwarza, Germany, c. 1500 BC (reconstruction)[2]
The Tumulus culture is distinguished by the practice of burying the dead beneath burial mounds (tumuli or kurgans).
In 1902, Paul Reinecke distinguished a number of cultural horizons based on research of Bronze Age hoards and tumuli in periods covered by these cultural horizons are shown in the table below (right). The Tumulus culture was prevalent during the Bronze Age periods B, C1, and C2. Tumuli have been used elsewhere in Europe from the Stone Age to the Iron Age; the term "Tumulus culture" specifically refers to the South German variant of the Bronze Age. In the table, Ha designates Hallstatt. Archaeological horizons Hallstatt A–B are part of the Bronze Age Urnfield culture, while horizons Hallstatt C–D are the type site for the Iron Age Hallstatt culture.
The Tumulus culture was eminently a warrior society, which expanded with new chiefdoms eastward into the Carpathian Basin (up to the river Tisza), and northward into Polish and Central European Únětice territories. The culture's dispersed settlements consisted of villages or homesteads centered on fortified structures such as hillforts.[3] Significant fortified settlements include the Heuneburg, Bullenheimer Berg, Ehrenbürg, and Bernstorf.[4][5] Fortification walls were built from wood, stone and clay. The massive 3.6m-wide wall surrounding the plateau of the Ehrenbürg resembled later murus gallicus fortifications known from the Iron Age.[6] 'Cyclopean' stone fortifications topped with wooden battlements were constructed c. 1400 BC at the large hillfort of Stätteberg in Bavaria.[7]
Tumulus culture societies traded with those in Scandinavia, Atlantic Europe, the Mediterranean region and the Aegean. Traded items included amber and metal artefacts.[8] From the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age there is evidence for the use of weighed metal as form of payment or money.[9][10][11] Weighing equipment has been found in central Europe dating from c. 1400 BC onwards.[12]
Some scholars see Tumulus groups from southern Germany as corresponding to a community that shared an extinct Indo-European linguistic entity, such as the hypothetical Italo-Celtic group that was ancestral to Italic and Celtic.[13][14] This particular hypothesis, however, conflicts with suggestions by other Indo-Europeanists. For instance, David W. Anthony suggests that Proto-Italic (and perhaps also Proto-Celtic) speakers could have entered Northern Italy at an earlier stage, from the east (e.g., the Balkan/Adriatic region).[15]
The Bronze Hand of Prêles from Switzerland, dating from the 16th-15th century BC, is a unique find from the Tumulus culture period.[16] Described as "the earliest metal representation of a human body part ever found in Europe",[17] it may have been a ritual object, or mounted on a standard like similar metal hands known from the Iron Age,[18] or possibly a prosthesis.[19] It was found in a grave along with a bronze hair-ring, pin and dagger. The hand had a golden bracelet or cuff decorated with solar motifs.[20]
Golden hats from Schifferstadt in Germany and Avanton in France, dating from the late Tumulus period (c. 1400 BC), may have been worn by elite religious figures, described as 'oracles' or 'king-priests' by researchers.[21][22] The patterns of ornaments or symbols on the hats are thought to represent calendars,[23][24] as on the later and more elaborate Berlin Gold Hat, which may encode knowledge of the luni-solar Metonic cycle.[25]Gold discs from the Czech Republic, dating from c. 1650-1250 BC, feature similar ornaments and are thought to represent simpler calendars.[26][27] Identical 'ritual objects' from Haschendorf in Austria and Balkåkra in Sweden may also date from the Middle Bronze Age and have been interpreted as solar calendars.[28][29]
^Kristiansen, Kristian; Suchowska-Ducke, Paulina (December 2015). "Connected Histories: the Dynamics of Bronze Age Interaction and Trade 1500–1100 BC". Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. 81. Cambridge University Press: 361–392. doi:10.1017/ppr.2015.17. Bernstorff is the largest fortified settlement in southern Germany/western Central Europe with a size of 14 ha. Its huge fortifications were constructed in the Middle Bronze Age (middle of the 14th century BC), when the power balance between eastern and western Central Europe was changing, and shortly after it was devastated and burned down along 1.6 kilometers of its length. We will probably never know who the enemies were, but we might suspect them to be outsiders, because at the same time we find evidence of major upheavals in eastern Central Europe.
^Kristiansen, Kristian; Suchowska-Ducke, Paulina (December 2015). "Connected Histories: the Dynamics of Bronze Age Interaction and Trade 1500–1100 BC". Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. 81: 361–392. doi:10.1017/ppr.2015.17. In the 15th and into the 13th century BC ... the western Mediterranean became the focus of new direct trade with the expanding Tumulus Culture of western Central Europe, which secured direct connections to Jutland and its sources of amber. The archaeological evidence shows that the Tumulus societies were in contact with the Aegean city-states through the exchange of amber and metal items, and also perhaps of perishable goods. It created new wealth in the Nordic Bronze Age and led to the formation of a specific Nordic style based on Mycenaean templates.
^Vandkilde, Helle (2021). "Trading and weighing metals in Bronze Age Western Eurasia". PNAS. 118 (30). doi:10.1073/pnas.2110552118. PMC8325268. PMID34301879. copper was traded for amber to be transported southward hundreds of kilometers to south German Tumulus groups who were in possession of weighing technology and greatly appreciated the amber, worn by women as necklaces not unlike those found in the shaft grave circles of Mycenae.
^Kortlandt, Frederik (2007a). Italo-Celtic origins and prehistoric development of the Irish language. Amsterdam: Rodopi, [page needed]
^Eska, J. F. (2010). "The emergence of the Celtic languages". IN: M. J. Ball and N. Müller (eds.), The Celtic Languages, second edition. London: Routledge, [page needed]
^Anthony, David W. (2010). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press, p. 367.
^Bouzek, Jan (2018). Studies of Homeric Greece. Charles University. p. 205. ISBN978-80-246-3561-3. The West Bohemian gold roundels with twelve bosses are simplified calendars of the gold cones.
^Bouzek, Jan (2018). Studies of Homeric Greece. Charles University. p. 205. ISBN978-80-246-3561-3. The West Bohemian gold roundels with twelve bosses are simplified calendars of the gold cones.
![Schifferstadt gold hat, Germany, c. 1400 BC.[32]](File:Speyer-2009-historisches-museum-026.jpg)
![Gold artefacts, Germany, 14th c. BC[33]](File:Museum_f%C3%BCr_Vor-_und_Fr%C3%BChgeschichte_Berlin_019.jpg)
![Amber necklace, Germany, 1500 BC.[34]](File:Bernsteincollier.jpg)
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