Representatives from the three major modern Buddhist traditions, at the World Fellowship of Buddhists, 27th General Conference, 2014.
The schools of Buddhism are the various institutional and doctrinal divisions of Buddhism which are the teachings off buddhist texts. The schools of Buddhism have existed from ancient times up to the present. The classification and nature of various doctrinal, philosophical or cultural facets of the schools of Buddhism is vague and has been interpreted in many different ways, often due to the sheer number (perhaps thousands) of different sects, subsects, movements, etc. that have made up or currently make up the whole of Buddhist traditions. The sectarian and conceptual divisions of Buddhist thought are part of the modern framework of Buddhist studies, as well as comparative religion in Asia. Some factors in Buddhism appear to be consistent, such as the afterlife. Which differs on the version of Buddhism.
From a largely English-language standpoint, and to some extent in most of Western academia, Buddhism is separated into two groups: Theravāda (lit. 'the Teaching of the Elders' or 'the Ancient Teaching'), and Mahāyāna (lit. 'the Great Vehicle'). The most common classification among scholars is threefold: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna.
East Asian Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle"), East Asian Buddhism or "Eastern Buddhism", prominent in East Asia and derived from the Chinese Buddhist traditions which began to develop during the Han Dynasty. This tradition focuses on the teachings found in Mahāyāna sutras (which are not considered canonical or authoritative in Theravāda), preserved in the Chinese Buddhist Canon, in the classical Chinese language. There are many schools and traditions, with different texts and focuses, such as Zen (Chan) and Pure Land (see below).
Vajrayāna ("Vajra Vehicle"), also known as Mantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism. This category is mostly represented in "Northern Buddhism", also called "Indo-Tibetan Buddhism" (or just "Tibetan Buddhism"), but also overlaps with certain forms of East Asian Buddhism (see: Shingon). It is prominent in Tibet, Bhutan, Sikkim, and the Himalayan region as well as in Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and the Russian republics of Buryatia, Kalmykia, and Tuva. It is sometimes considered to be a part of the broader category of Mahāyāna Buddhism instead of a separate tradition.[citation needed] The main texts of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism are contained in the Kanjur and the Tenjur. Besides the study of major Mahāyāna texts, this branch emphasizes the study of Buddhist tantric materials, mainly those related to the Buddhist tantras.
Another way of classifying the different forms of Buddhism is through the different monastic ordination traditions. There are three main traditions of monastic law (Vinaya) each corresponding to the first three categories outlined above:
The terminology for the major divisions of Buddhism can be confusing, as Buddhism is variously divided by scholars and practitioners according to geographic, historical, and philosophical criteria, with different terms often being used in different contexts. The following terms may be encountered in descriptions of the major Buddhist divisions:
an alternative name used by some scholars[6] for East Asian Buddhism; also sometimes used to refer to all traditional forms of Buddhism, as distinct from Western(ized) forms.
Mahayana texts such as the Lotus Sutra and the Avatamsaka Sutra sought to unite all the different teachings into a single great way. These texts serve as the inspiration for using the term Ekayāna in the sense of "one vehicle". This "one vehicle" became a key aspect of the doctrines and practices of Tiantai and Tendai Buddhist sects, which subsequently influenced Chán and Zen doctrines and practices. In Japan, the one-vehicle teaching of the Lotus Sutra also is also a main doctrine of Nichiren Buddhist sects. The Lotus Sutra has so much influence that meditation was replaced by chanting the Japanese words Namu Myoho Renge Kyo ("The Way of the Lotus Sutra") in religious practice.
Esoteric Buddhism
usually considered synonymous with "Vajrayāna".[7] Some scholars have applied the term to certain practices found within the Theravāda, particularly in Cambodia.[8]
literally meaning "lesser vehicle". It is considered a controversial term when applied by the Mahāyāna, to refer to the Theravāda school, and as such is widely viewed as condescending and pejorative.[9][a] Moreover, Hīnayāna refers to the now non-extant schools with limited set of views, practices, and results, prior to the development of the Mahāyāna traditions. The term is currently most often used as a way of describing a stage on the path in Tibetan Buddhism, but is often mistakenly confused with the contemporary Theravāda tradition, which is far more complex, diversified, and profound, than the literal and limiting definition attributed to Hīnayāna.[10] Its use in scholarly publications is now also considered controversial.[b]
Lamaism
synonymous with Tibetan Buddhism; an old term, sometimes still used, but widely considered derogatory.
a movement that emerged from early Buddhist schools, together with its later descendants, East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. Vajrayāna traditions are sometimes listed separately. The main use of the term in East Asian and Tibetan traditions is in reference to spiritual levels,[11] regardless of school.
an alternative term used by some scholars[6][page needed] for Tibetan Buddhism. Also, an older term still sometimes used to encompass both East Asian and Tibetan traditions. It has even been used to refer to East Asian Buddhism alone, without Tibetan Buddhism.
Secret Mantra
an alternative rendering of Mantrayāna, a more literal translation of the term used by schools in Tibetan Buddhism when referring to themselves.[15]
Sectarian Buddhism
an alternative name for the early Buddhist schools.
usually considered synonymous with "Vajrayāna".[12] However, one scholar describes the tantra divisions of some editions of the Tibetan scriptures as including Śravakayāna, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna texts[17] (see Buddhist texts). Some scholars,[8] particularly François Bizot,[18] have used the term Tantric Theravada to refer to certain practices found particularly in Cambodia.
a movement that developed out of Indian Mahāyāna, together with its later descendants. There is some disagreement on exactly which traditions fall into this category. Tibetan Buddhism is universally recognized as falling under this heading; many also include the Japanese Shingon school. Some scholars[20] also apply the term to the Korean milgyo tradition, which is not a separate school. One scholar says, "Despite the efforts of generations of Buddhist thinkers, it remains exceedingly difficult to identify precisely what it is that sets the Vajrayana apart."[21]
Map of the major geographical centers of major Buddhist schools in South Asia, at around the time of Xuanzang's visit in the seventh century. * Red: non-Pudgalavāda Sarvāstivāda school * Orange: non-Dharmaguptaka Vibhajyavāda schools * Yellow: Mahāsāṃghika * Green: Pudgalavāda (Green) * Gray: Dharmaguptaka Note the red and grey schools already gave some original ideas of Mahayana Buddhism and the Sri Lankan section (see Tamrashatiya) of the orange school is the origin of modern Theravada Buddhism.
The early Buddhist schools or mainstream sects refers to the sects into which the Indian Buddhist monastic saṅgha split. They are also called the Nikaya Buddhist schools, Ezhuthupally, and in Mahayana Buddhism they are referred to either as the Śrāvaka (disciple) schools or Hinayana (inferior) schools.
Most scholars now believe that the first schism was originally caused by differences in vinaya (monastic rule).[22]: 88–90 Later splits were also due to doctrinal differences and geographical separation.
The first schism separated the community into two groups, the Sthavira (Elders) Nikaya and the Mahāsāṃghika (Great Community). Most scholars hold that this probably occurred after the time of Ashoka.[23] Out of these two main groups later arose many other sects or schools.
The Sarvāstivāda school, popular in northwest India and Kashmir, focused on Abhidharma teachings.[24] Their name means "the theory that all exists" which refers to one of their main doctrines, the view that all dharmas exist in the past, present and in the future. This is an eternalist theory of time.[25] Over time, the Sarvāstivādins became divided into various traditions, mainly the Vaibhāṣika (who defended the orthodox "all exists" doctrine in their Abhidharma compendium called the Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra), the Sautrāntika (who rejected the Vaibhāṣika orthodoxy) and the Mūlasarvāstivāda.
The Pudgalavāda sects (also known as Vātsīputrīyas) were another group of Sthaviras which were known for their unique doctrine of the pudgala (person). Their tradition was founded by the elder Vātsīputra circa 3rd century BCE.[26]
The Vibhajyavādins were conservative Sthaviras who did not accept the doctrines of either the Sarvāstivāda or the Pudgalavāda. In Sri Lanka, a group of them became known as Theravada, the only one of these sects that survives to the present day. Another sect which arose from the Vibhajyavādins were the Dharmaguptakas. This school was influential in spreading Buddhism to Central Asia and to China. Their Vinaya is still used in East Asian Buddhism.
The Mahāsāṃghikas also split into various sub groups. One of these were the Lokottaravādins (Transcendentalists), so called because of their doctrine which saw every action of the Buddha, even mundane ones like eating, as being of a supramundane and transcendental nature. One of the few Mahāsāṃghika texts which survive, the Mahāvastu, is from this school. Another sub-sect which emerged from the Mahāsāṃghika was called the Caitika. They were concentrated in Andhra Pradesh and in South India. Some scholars such as A.K. Warder hold that many important Mahayana sutras originated among these groups.[27] Another Mahāsāṃghika sect was named Prajñaptivāda. They were known for the doctrine that viewed all conditioned phenomena as being mere concepts (Skt. prajñapti).[28]
According to the Indian philosopher Paramartha, a further split among the Mahāsāṃghika occurred with the arrival of the Mahayana sutras. Some sub-schools, such as the Kukkuṭikas, did not accept the Mahayana sutras as being word of the Buddha, whole others, like the Lokottaravādins, did accept them.[29]
Although there are differences in the historical records as to the exact composition of the various schools of early Buddhism, a hypothetical combined list would be as follows:
The Tipitaka (Pali Canon), in a Thai Style book case. The Pali Tipitaka is the doctrinal foundation of all major Theravāda sects today
Theravāda is the only extant mainstream non-Mahayana school. They are derived from the Sri Lankan Mahāvihāra sect, which was a branch of the South Indian Vibhajjavādins. Theravāda bases its doctrine on the Pāli Canon, the only complete Buddhist canon surviving in a classical Indian language. This language is Pāli, which serves as the school's sacred language and lingua franca.[31]
The different sects and groups in Theravāda often emphasize different aspects (or parts) of the Pāli canon and the later commentaries (especially the very influential Visuddhimagga), or differ in the focus on and recommended way of practice. There are also significant differences in strictness or interpretation of the Vinaya Pitaka, the Theravādin Vinaya followed by monastics of this tradition.
Nagarjuna, one of the most influential thinkers of Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism
Mahāyāna (Great Vehicle) Buddhism is category of traditions which focus on the bodhisattva path and affirm texts known as Mahāyāna sutras. These texts are seen by modern scholars as dating as far back as the 1st century BCE.[32] Unlike Theravada and other early schools, Mahāyāna schools generally hold that there are currently many Buddhas which are accessible, and that they are transcendental or supramundane beings.[33]
In India, there were two major traditions of Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophy. The earliest was the Mādhyamaka ("Middle Way"), also known as the Śūnyavāda ("Emptiness") school. This tradition followed the works of the philosopher Nāgārjuna (c. 150–c. 250 CE). Two subsects of the Madhyamaka school that developed were the Svatantrika, founded by the 6th-century Indian philosopher Bhāviveka, and the Prasangika, founded by Chandrakirti and later advanced by Je Tsongkhapa, 14th-century founder of the Gelug sect in Tibet.
The other major school of Indian Mahayana was the Yogācāra ("yoga practice") school, also known as the Vijñānavāda ("the doctrine of consciousness"), Vijñaptivāda ("the doctrine of ideas or percepts"), or Cittamātra ("mind-only") school, founded by Asanga in the 4th century AD.
Some scholars also note that the compilers of the Tathāgatagarbha texts constitute a third "school" of Indian Mahāyāna.[34] This movement heavily influenced East Asian and Tibetan Mahayana schools such as the Dashabhumika, Huayan, Tiantai, Jonang, Nichiren and Zen sects, as did both Madhyamaka and Yogacara.
East Asian Mahayana
East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana refers to the schools that developed in East Asia and use the Chinese Buddhist canon. It is a major religion in China, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, Malaysia and Singapore. East Asian Buddhists constitute the numerically largest body of Buddhist traditions in the world, numbering over half of the world's Buddhists.[35][36]
Indian Buddhist Mahasiddhas, 18th century, Boston MFA.
Esoteric Buddhism, also known as Vajrayāna, Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, and Tantric Buddhism is often placed in a separate category by scholars due to its unique tantric features and elements. Esoteric Buddhism arose and developed in medieval India among esoteric adepts known as Mahāsiddhas. Esoteric Buddhism maintains its own set of texts alongside the classic scriptures, these esoteric works are known as the Buddhist Tantras. It includes practices that make use of mantras, dharanis, mudras, mandalas and the visualization of deities and Buddhas.
Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, the most widespread of these traditions, is practiced in Tibet, parts of North India and Siberia, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Mongolia. Monastics of this tradition generally follow the MulasarvastivadaVinaya.
^Hinayana (literally, "inferior way") is a polemical term, which self-described Mahāyāna (literally, "great way") Buddhist literature uses to denigrate its opponents.[9]
^"The supposed Mahayana-Hinayana dichotomy is so prevalent in Buddhist literature, that it has yet fully to loosen its hold over scholarly representations of the religion".[9]
Other notes
^ abcdefAccording to Buswell and Lopez, the Kāśyapīya and Mahīśāsaka were offshoots of the Sarvastivadins, but are grouped under the Vibhajjavāda as "non-sarvastivada" groups.[30]
References
^Lee Worth Bailey, Emily Taitz (2005), Introduction to the World's Major Religions: Buddhism, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 67.
^Mitchell, Scott A. (2016), Buddhism in America: Global Religion, Local Contexts, Bloomsbury Publishing, p. 87.
^Gethin, Rupert, The Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, pp. 253–266.
^William H. Swatos (ed.) (1998) Encyclopedia of Religion and Society, Altamira Press, p. 66.
^Hopkins, Jeffrey (1985) The Ultimate Deity in Action Tantra and Jung's Warning against Identifying with the Deity Buddhist-Christian Studies, Vol. 5, (1985), pp. 159–172
^Skilling, (1997). Mahasutras, volume II, Parts I & II, p. 78. Lancaster, UK: Pali Text Society
^Crosby, Kate (2000). Tantric Theravada: A bibliographic essay on the writings of François Bizot and others on the yogvacara Tradition. [In] Contemporary Buddhism, 1:2, 141–198; doi:10.1080/14639940008573729.
^Encyclopedia of Religion, volume 2, Macmillan, New York, 1987, pp. 440ff; Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, sv Buddhism
لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع سيدني (توضيح). سيدني الإحداثيات 47°42′45″N 104°09′41″W / 47.7125°N 104.16138888889°W / 47.7125; -104.16138888889 تاريخ التأسيس 1911 تقسيم إداري البلد الولايات المتحدة[1][2] التقسيم الأعلى مقاطعة راتشلاند عاصمة لـ مقاطعة راتشلاند خصائ
Questa voce sull'argomento calciatori marocchini è solo un abbozzo. Contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di Wikipedia. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Abdellatif Noussir Nazionalità Marocco Calcio Ruolo Difensore Squadra Moghreb Tétouan Carriera Squadre di club1 2009-2010 Maghreb Fès6 (0)2010-2012 FUS Rabat27 (0)2012-2014 MAS Fes36 (0)2013-2021 Wydad Casablanca144 (6)2021- Moghreb Tétouan20 (1) Nazionale 201? Marocco U-2...
Ethan Vernon Ethan Vernon (2019) Zur Person UCI-Id 10023821362 Geburtsdatum 26. August 2000 (23 Jahre) Geburtsort Bedford Nation Vereinigtes Konigreich Vereinigtes Königreich Disziplin Straße, Bahn Körpergröße 188 cm Renngewicht 74 kg Zum Team Aktuelles Team Soudal Quick-Step Funktion Fahrer Internationale Team(s) 2022– Quick-Step Alpha Vinyl Team Wichtigste Erfolge UCI-Bahn-Weltmeisterschaften 2023 – Ausscheidungsfahren 2022 – Mannschaftsverfolgung 2021 – Mannscha...
إقليم كاشيو خريطة الموقع تقسيم إداري البلد غينيا بيساو [1] العاصمة كاشيو خصائص جغرافية إحداثيات 12°10′00″N 16°00′00″W / 12.166666666667°N 16°W / 12.166666666667; -16 [2] المساحة 5,174.9 كيلومتر مربع السكان التعداد السكاني 192,508 نسمة (إحصاء 2009) الكثافة السكانية 37.20 نسمة/ك
Montacute House. Montacute House, situada en el condado de South Somerset en el pueblo de Montacute, es descrita por sus dueños, el National Trust, como una de las maravillas de la arquitectura isabelina tardía,[1] tiene protección del English Heritage de Grado I.[2] En 2007 la visitaron 111.070 personas.[3] La mansión de tres plantas, construida con la piedra local Ham Hill, fue construida en 1598 por Sir Edgard Phelips, Master of the Rolls, para la reina Isabel I. A...
De eerste hertog van Sanlúcar la Mayor door Velázquez Duque de Sanlúcar la Mayor is een sinds 1625 bestaande Spaanse adellijke titel. Geschiedenis Op 5 januari 1625 werd de titel van hertog van Sanlúcar la Mayor gecreëerd door Filips IV van Spanje voor Gaspar de Guzmán y Pimentel (1587-1645). De titel is ontleend aan de plaats Sanlúcar la Mayor. In 1632 werd aan deze titel de Grandeza de España verleend. De titel ging vervolgens over naar de geslachten Felipez, Osorio de Moscoso en Ru...
El edificio Haus des Hehrers usaba un sistema de lámparas que simulaban los píxeles de una pantalla. El Proyecto Blinkenlights fue una instalación lumínica en el edificio Haus des Lehrers (Casa del Maestro), situado en Alexanderplatz, en la ciudad de Berlín. Este proyecto tenía como finalidad transformar el edificio en la mayor pantalla de ordenador interactiva del mundo, y para conseguirlo se transformó la fachada del edificio en un monitor monocromo gigante de baja resolución. Fue o...
FashionTVLogo Fashion TVDiluncurkanApril 1997PemilikMichel Adam LisowskiSloganWhy F?NegaraPrancisBahasaInggrisKantor pusatParisLondonViennaMumbaiSitus webwww.fashiontv.comTelevisi InternetTVPlayerWatch live (Britania Raya)VDCChannel 301Ziggo GO (Belanda)ZiggoGO.tv (Eropa) Fashion TV adalah sebuah saluran TV yang menyiarkan siaran secara 24/7 tentang fesyen yang didirikan oleh Michel Adam Lisowski seorang kelahiran Polandia dan disiarkan pertama kali di Prancis pada tahun 1997 khusus didedikas...
تناقض الاستدلال التراكمي: إذا تم تقليل الكومة بمقدار حبة واحدة في كل مرة ، في أي نقطة بالضبط لا يمكن اعتبارها كومة؟جزء من سلسلة مقالات حولالمغالطات المنطقية عام المنطق الفلسفي الرياضي الاستدلال الحجة المفارقة المغالطة التفكير النقدي مغالطات صوريَّة في حساب القضايا تأكيد...
State of having just one sex in any individual organism Not to be confused with sexual dimorphism. In biology, gonochorism is a sexual system where there are only two sexes and each individual organism is either male or female.[1] The term gonochorism is usually applied in animal species, the vast majority of which are gonochoric.[2]: 212–222 Gonochorism contrasts with simultaneous hermaphroditism but it may be hard to tell if a species is gonochoric or sequ...
1997 American film by James Cameron TitanicTheatrical release posterDirected byJames CameronWritten byJames CameronProduced by James Cameron Jon Landau Starring Leonardo DiCaprio Kate Winslet Billy Zane Kathy Bates Frances Fisher Bernard Hill Jonathan Hyde Danny Nucci David Warner Bill Paxton CinematographyRussell CarpenterEdited by Conrad Buff James Cameron Richard A. Harris Music byJames HornerProductioncompanies Paramount Pictures[1][2] 20th Century Fox[1][2]...
Airline of the United States Mokulele Airlines IATA ICAO Callsign 9X FDY FRIENDLY Founded1994 (as Mokulele Flight Service)AOC #141A246O[1]Hubs Kahului Honolulu Fleet size11Destinations10Parent companySouthern Airways ExpressHeadquartersPalm Beach, FloridaKey people Stan Little Jr (CEO of Southern Airways Express) Richard Schuman (VP of Hawaii Operations) FounderRebecca InabaEmployees235Websitemokuleleairlines.com Mokulele flew Piper Navajo Chieftains for years, with Hawai'i scene...
This article lists the diesel locomotives that have operated or are operating on Indian Railways. Classification Locomotives were classified by track gauge, motive power, function and power (or model number) in a four- or five-letter code. The first letter denotes the track gauge. The second letter denotes motive power (diesel or electric), and the third letter denotes use (goods, passenger, mixed or shunting). The fourth letter denotes a locomotive's chronological model number. In 2002, a ne...
Iranian volleyball player This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; try the Find link tool for suggestions. (April 2022) Bahram FaridPersonal informationBorn1984Urmia, IranHeight188 cm (6 ft 2 in)Volleyball informationPositionOutside SpikerCurrent club Shardari UrmiaNumber7Career YearsTeams ?–20132013–20142014–20152015–20162016– Shardari Urmia Matin Shahrdari Tabriz Shahrdari Urmia Shahrdari ...
United States historic placeClark Brothers Factory No. 1U.S. National Register of Historic Places Factory complex, 1988Show map of ConnecticutShow map of the United StatesLocation1331 S. Main St., Southington, ConnecticutCoordinates41°34′15″N 72°53′47″W / 41.57083°N 72.89639°W / 41.57083; -72.89639Area4.7 acres (1.9 ha)Built1893 (1893)Architectural styleIndustrial vernacularMPSHistoric Industrial Complexes of Southington TRNRHP reference...
Embassy of the United States, RiyadhLocation Riyadh, Saudi ArabiaAddressAbdullah Ibn Hudhafah As Sahmi Street Roundabout no. 9, Diplomatic Quarter Riyadh, Saudi ArabiaCoordinates24°40′53″N 46°37′17″E / 24.68139°N 46.62139°E / 24.68139; 46.62139Websitehttps://sa.usembassy.gov The Embassy of the United States, Riyadh is the embassy of the United States located in the capital city of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.[1] The relationship between the United States a...
45-story hotel located in the Crown Center complex in Kansas City, Missouri Sheraton Kansas City Hotel at Crown CenterSheraton Kansas City Hotel with glass skyway connection to Crown Center.Former namesHyatt Regency Kansas City, Hyatt Regency Crown CenterHotel chainSheratonGeneral informationLocationUnited StatesCoordinates39°05′06″N 94°34′48″W / 39.085°N 94.580°W / 39.085; -94.580OpeningJuly 1, 1980; 43 years ago (July 1, 1980)CostUS$150 milli...
Rivolta albanese del 1912Üsküb (Skopje) sotto il controllo dei rivoltosi albanesiDatagennaio - 4 settembre 1912 Luogovilayet dell'Impero ottomano del Kosovo, di Monastir, di Janina e di Scutari Causacambiamenti introdotti dai Giovani Turchi (aumento delle tasse e disarmo delle milizie civili albanesi) Esitovittoria dei rivoltosi SchieramentiRivoltosi albanesi (appoggiati da Bulgaria, Montenegro e Regno Unito) Impero ottomano ComandantiHasan PrishtinaIsmail QemaliEssad PasciàKüçük Mehmed...
.svg){kind=small}
_-_(multiple_figures)18th_century_Boston_MFA.jpg)
