Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated constitutions and laws.[1]
Modern political science can generally be divided into the three sub-disciplines: comparative politics, international relations, and political theory.[2]
Political science is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of political activities, political institutions, political thought and behavior, and associated constitutions and laws.[3]
As a social science, contemporary political science started to take shape in the latter half of the 19th century and began to separate itself from political philosophy and history.[4] Into the late 19th century, it was still uncommon for political science to be considered a distinct field from history.[4] The term "political science" was not always distinguished from political philosophy, and the modern discipline has a clear set of antecedents including moral philosophy, political economy, political theology, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal state.[citation needed]
Generally, classical political philosophy is primarily defined by a concern for Hellenic and Enlightenment thought,[5] political scientists are also marked by a great concern for "modernity" and the contemporary nation state, along with the study of classical thought, and as such share more terminology with sociologists (e.g., structure and agency).[6]
The advent of political science as a university discipline was marked by the creation of university departments and chairs with the title of political science arising in the late 19th century. The designation "political scientist" is commonly used to denote someone with a doctorate or master's degree in the field.[7] Integrating political studies of the past into a unified discipline is ongoing, and the history of political science has provided a rich field for the growth of both normative and positive political science, with each part of the discipline sharing some historical predecessors. The American Political Science Association and the American Political Science Review were founded in 1903 and 1906, respectively, in an effort to distinguish the study of politics from economics and other social phenomena. APSA membership rose from 204 in 1904 to 1,462 in 1915.[4] APSA members played a key role in setting up political science departments that were distinct from history, philosophy, law, sociology, and economics.[4]
The journal Political Science Quarterly was established in 1886 by the Academy of Political Science. In the inaugural issue of Political Science Quarterly, Munroe Smith defined political science as "the science of the state. Taken in this sense, it includes the organization and functions of the state, and the relation of states one to another."[8]
As part of a UNESCO initiative to promote political science in the late 1940s, the International Political Science Association was founded in 1949, as well as national associations in France in 1949, Britain in 1950, and West Germany in 1951.[4]
In the 1950s and the 1960s, a behavioral revolution stressing the systematic and rigorously scientific study of individual and group behavior swept the discipline. A focus on studying political behavior, rather than institutions or interpretation of legal texts, characterized early behavioral political science, including work by Robert Dahl, Philip Converse, and in the collaboration between sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld and public opinion scholar Bernard Berelson.[citation needed]
The late 1960s and early 1970s witnessed a takeoff in the use of deductive, game-theoretic formal modelling techniques aimed at generating a more analytical corpus of knowledge in the discipline. This period saw a surge of research that borrowed theory and methods from economics to study political institutions, such as the United States Congress, as well as political behavior, such as voting. William H. Riker and his colleagues and students at the University of Rochester were the main proponents of this shift.[citation needed]
Despite considerable research progress in the discipline based on all types of scholarship discussed above, scholars have noted that progress toward systematic theory has been modest and uneven.[9]
In 2000, the Perestroika Movement in political science was introduced as a reaction against what supporters of the movement called the mathematicization of political science. Those who identified with the movement argued for a plurality of methodologies and approaches in political science and for more relevance of the discipline to those outside of it.[10]
Some evolutionary psychology theories argue that humans have evolved a highly developed set of psychological mechanisms for dealing with politics. However, these mechanisms evolved for dealing with the small group politics that characterized the ancestral environment and not the much larger political structures in today's world. This is argued to explain many important features and systematic cognitive biases of current politics.[11]
Political science is a social study concerning the allocation and transfer of power in decision making, the roles and systems of governance including governments and international organizations, political behaviour, and public policies. It measures the success of governance and specific policies by examining many factors, including stability, justice, material wealth, peace, and public health. Some political scientists seek to advance positive theses (which attempt to describe how things are, as opposed to how they should be) by analysing politics; others advance normative theses, such as by making specific policy recommendations. The study of politics and policies can be closely connected—for example, in comparative analyses of which types of political institutions tend to produce certain types of policies.[12] Political science provides analysis and predictions about political and governmental issues.[13] Political scientists examine the processes, systems and political dynamics of countries and regions of the world, often to raise public awareness or to influence specific governments.[13]
Political scientists may provide the frameworks from which journalists, special interest groups, politicians, and the electorate analyze issues. According to Chaturvedy,
Political scientists may serve as advisers to specific politicians, or even run for office as politicians themselves. Political scientists can be found working in governments, in political parties, or as civil servants. They may be involved with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) or political movements. In a variety of capacities, people educated and trained in political science can add value and expertise to corporations. Private enterprises such as think tanks, research institutes, polling and public relations firms often employ political scientists.[14]
Political scientists may study political phenomena within one specific country. For example, they may study just the politics of the United States[15] or just the politics of China.[16]
Political scientists look at a variety of data, including constitutions, elections, public opinion, and public policy, foreign policy, legislatures, and judiciaries. Political scientists will often focus on the politics of their own country; for example, a political scientist from Indonesia may become an expert in the politics of Indonesia.[17]
The theory of political transitions,[18] and the methods of analyzing and anticipating[19] crises,[20] form an important part of political science. Several general indicators of crises and methods were proposed for anticipating critical transitions.[21] Among them, one statistical indicator of crisis, a simultaneous increase of variance and correlations in large groups, was proposed for crisis anticipation and may be successfully used in various areas.[22] Its applicability for early diagnosis of political crises was demonstrated by the analysis of the prolonged stress period preceding the 2014 Ukrainian economic and political crisis. There was a simultaneous increase in the total correlation between the 19 major public fears in the Ukrainian society (by about 64%) and in their statistical dispersion (by 29%) during the pre-crisis years.[23] A feature shared by certain major revolutions is that they were not predicted. The theory of apparent inevitability of crises and revolutions was also developed.[24]
The study of major crises, both political crises and external crises that can affect politics, is not limited to attempts to predict regime transitions or major changes in political institutions. Political scientists also study how governments handle unexpected disasters, and how voters in democracies react to their governments' preparations for and responses to crises.[25]
Political science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in psychology, social research, political philosophy, and many others, in addition to those that developed chiefly within the field of political science.
Political scientists approach the study of politics from a host of different ontological orientations and with a variety of different tools. Because political science is essentially a study of human behavior, in all aspects of politics, observations in controlled environments are often challenging to reproduce or duplicate, though experimental methods are increasingly common (see experimental political science).[26] Citing this difficulty, former American Political Science Association President Lawrence Lowell once said "We are limited by the impossibility of experiment. Politics is an observational, not an experimental science."[19] Because of this, political scientists have historically observed political elites, institutions, and individual or group behaviour in order to identify patterns, draw generalizations, and build theories of politics.
Like all social sciences, political science faces the difficulty of observing human actors that can only be partially observed and who have the capacity for making conscious choices, unlike other subjects, such as non-human organisms in biology, minerals in geoscience, chemical elements in chemistry, stars in astronomy, or particles in physics. Despite the complexities, contemporary political science has progressed by adopting a variety of methods and theoretical approaches to understanding politics, and methodological pluralism is a defining feature of contemporary political science.
Empirical political science methods include the use of field experiments,[27] surveys and survey experiments,[28] case studies,[29] process tracing,[30][31] historical and institutional analysis,[32] ethnography,[33] participant observation,[34] and interview research.[35]
Political scientists also use and develop theoretical tools like game theory and agent-based models to study a host of political systems and situations.[36] Other approaches include the study of equation-based models and opinion dynamics.[37]
Political theorists approach theories of political phenomena with a similar diversity of positions and tools, including feminist political theory, historical analysis associated with the Cambridge school, and Straussian approaches.
Political science may overlap with topics of study that are the traditional focuses of other social sciences—for example, when sociological norms or psychological biases are connected to political phenomena. In these cases, political science may either inherit their methods of study or develop a contrasting approach.[38] For example, Lisa Wedeen has argued that political science's approach to the idea of culture, originating with Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba and exemplified by authors like Samuel P. Huntington, could benefit from aligning more closely with the study of culture in anthropology.[38] In turn, methodologies that are developed within political science may influence how researchers in other fields, like public health, conceive of and approach political processes and policies.[39]
Political science, possibly like the social sciences as a whole, can be described "as a discipline which lives on the fault line between the 'two cultures' in the academy, the sciences and the humanities."[40] Thus, in most American colleges, especially liberal arts colleges it would be located within the school or college of arts and sciences, if no separate college of arts and sciences exists or if the college or university prefers that it be in a separate constituent college or academic department, then political science may be a separate department housed as part of a division or school of humanities or liberal arts.[41] At some universities, especially research universities and in particular those that have a strong cooperation between research, undergraduate, and graduate faculty with a stronger more applied emphasis in public administration, political science would be taught by the university's public policy school.
Most United States colleges and universities offer BA programs in political science. MA or MAT and PhD or EdD programs are common at larger universities. The term political science is more popular in post-1960s North America than elsewhere while universities predating the 1960s or those historically influenced by them would call the field of study government;[42] other institutions, especially those outside the United States, see political science as part of a broader discipline of political studies or politics in general. While political science implies the use of the scientific method, political studies implies a broader approach, although the naming of degree courses does not necessarily reflect their content. Separate, specialized or, in some cases, professional degree programs in international relations, public policy, and public administration are common at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, although most but not all undergraduate level education in these sub-fields of political science is generally found in academic concentrations within a political science academic major. Master's-level programs in public administration are professional degrees covering public policy along with other applied subjects; they are often seen as more linked to politics than any other discipline, which may be reflected by being housed in that department.[43]
The main national honor society for college and university students of government and politics in the United States is Pi Sigma Alpha, while Pi Alpha Alpha is a national honor society specifically designated for public administration.
The most common piece of academic writing in generalist political sciences is the research paper, which investigates an original research question.[44][45]
…although one might allege the same for social science as a whole, political scientists receive funding from and play an active role in both the National Science Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities [in the United States].
…existing practices at Harvard University, the University of California at Berkeley, and the University of Michigan.
Men's national water polo team representing India IndiaFINA codeINDConfederationAASF (Asia)Olympic GamesAppearances2 (first in 1948)Best result12th place (1948)Asian GamesAppearances5 (first in 1951)Best result Gold medal (1951) India men's national water polo team Medal record Asian Games 1951 New Delhi Team 1970 Bangkok Team 1982 New Delhi Team India men's national water polo team is the representative for India in international men's water polo. Water Polo in India is administered by the …
هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (يوليو 2019) بيتر يوناس معلومات شخصية الميلاد 18 يونيو 1941 (82 سنة) فيينا مواطنة النمسا الحياة العملية المهنة متزلج فني، ومدرب تزلج فني [لغات أخرى] ال…
Bailarinas de ballet ejecutando grand jetes durante una presentación de danza de concierto. La danza de concierto (también conocida como danza de espectáculo o danza de teatro en el Reino Unido) es un baile realizado para una audiencia. Se realiza con frecuencia en un entorno de teatro, aunque esto no es un requisito, y por lo general se coreografía y se ejecuta para establecer la música. Por el contrario, la danza social y la danza de participación se pueden realizar sin una audiencia y, …
Barnwell County County in de Verenigde Staten Situering Staat South Carolina Coördinaten 33°15'36NB, 81°26'24WL Algemeen Oppervlakte 1.443 km² - land 1.420 km² - water 23 km² Inwoners (2000) 23.478 (17 inw./km²) Overig Zetel Barnwell FIPS-code 45011 Opgericht 1798 Foto's Bevolkingspiramide Barnwell County Statistieken volkstelling Barnwell County Portaal Verenigde Staten Barnwell County is een van de 46 county's in de Amerikaanse staat South Carolina. De county heeft een land…
يفتقر محتوى هذه المقالة إلى الاستشهاد بمصادر. فضلاً، ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة من خلال إضافة مصادر موثوق بها. أي معلومات غير موثقة يمكن التشكيك بها وإزالتها. (يوليو 2016) منتخب رومانيا تحت 21 سنة لكرة القدم بلد الرياضة رومانيا الفئة كرة قدم تحت 21 سنة للرجال [لغات أخرى]̴…
Kejuaraan Dunia BWF 2015Informasi turnamenEdisike-ke-22LevelInternasionalTempatpenyelenggaraanIstora Gelora Bung Karno (Istora Senayan)Jakarta ← Kopenhagen 2014 Glasgow 2017 → Kejuaraan Dunia BWF 2015 merupakan edisi ke-22 dari Kejuaraan Dunia BWF yang diadakan oleh Federasi Bulu Tangkis Dunia akan diselenggarakan pada 10-16 Agustus 2015 di Istora Gelora Bung Karno, Jakarta, Indonesia.[1] Undian Undian dilaksanakan pada 28 Juli 2015 pukul 11:00 Waktu Indonesia Barat di Museum Bank In…
присілок Молчаново рос. Молчановоерз. Молчаново Країна Росія Суб'єкт Російської Федерації Мордовія Муніципальний район Єльниківський район Поселення Стародівиченське Код ЗКАТУ: 89218885002 Код ЗКТМО: 89618485106 Основні дані Населення 126 осіб (2010[1]) Поштовий індекс 431372 Геог
Die Bioverfügbarkeit ist eine pharmakologische Messgröße für den Anteil eines Wirkstoffes, der unverändert im Blutkreislauf zur Verfügung steht.[1] Sie gibt an, wie schnell und in welchem Umfang der Stoff (meistens Arzneistoff) aufgenommen (resorbiert) wird und unverändert am Wirkort zur Verfügung steht.[2][3] Bioverfügbarkeit nach intravenöser Gabe (per Definition 100 %, rot, i.v.) und nach oraler Gabe (schwarz, grau, p.o.): Sind die Flächen unter den Kur…
Santos 2015 football seasonSantos2015 seasonPresidentModesto Roma JúniorCoachDorival JúniorStadiumVila BelmiroCampeonato Brasileiro7thCampeonato PaulistaWinnersCopa do BrasilRunners-upTop goalscorerLeague: Ricardo Oliveira (20)All: Ricardo Oliveira (37)Highest home attendance25,939 vs Figueirense (1 October)Lowest home attendance3,836 vs Atlético Paranaense (6 December) Home colours Away colours Third colours ← 20142016 → The 2015 season is Santos Futebol Clube's 103rd s…
この記事は検証可能な参考文献や出典が全く示されていないか、不十分です。出典を追加して記事の信頼性向上にご協力ください。(このテンプレートの使い方)出典検索?: タイムパラドックス 競走馬 – ニュース · 書籍 · スカラー · CiNii · J-STAGE · NDL · dlib.jp · ジャパンサーチ · TWL(2015年6月) タイムパラドックス 2005年12
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1992 film by Andrew Davis This article is about the 1992 action film. For other uses, see Under Siege (disambiguation). Not to be confused with S.W.A.T.: Under Siege. Under SiegeTheatrical release posterDirected byAndrew Davis[1]Written byJ. F. LawtonProduced by Arnon Milchan Steven Reuther Steven Seagal Starring Steven Seagal Tommy Lee Jones Gary Busey CinematographyFrank TidyEdited by Don Brochu Robert A. Ferretti Dov Hoenig Dennis Virkler Music byGary ChangProductioncompanies Regency …
Town in Connecticut, United States Town in Connecticut, United StatesWindsorTownTown of WindsorWindsor Town Hall, located on Broad Street SealMotto(s): First in Connecticut, First for its Citizens Hartford County and Connecticut Capitol Planning Region and ConnecticutShow WindsorShow ConnecticutShow the United StatesCoordinates: 41°51′10″N 72°38′35″W / 41.85278°N 72.64306°W / 41.85278; -72.64306Country United StatesU.S. state Connectic…
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H1-3 المعرفات الأسماء المستعارة H1-3, H1.3, H1D, H1F3, H1s-2, histone cluster 1, H1d, histone cluster 1 H1 family member d, H1.3 linker histone, cluster member, HIST1H1D معرفات خارجية الوراثة المندلية البشرية عبر الإنترنت 142210 MGI: MGI:107502 HomoloGene: 68456 GeneCards: 3007 علم الوجود الجيني الوظيفة الجزيئية • ربط دي إن إي• chromatin DNA binding• RNA binding• double-stranded DN…
A chemotherapy medication used for several cancer types ProcarbazineClinical dataTrade namesMatulane, Natulan, Indicarb, othersAHFS/Drugs.comMonographMedlinePlusa682094Pregnancycategory AU: D Routes ofadministrationBy mouth (gel capsule), intravenousATC codeL01XB01 (WHO) Legal statusLegal status In general: ℞ (Prescription only) Pharmacokinetic dataMetabolismliver, kidneyElimination half-life10 minutesExcretionkidneyIdentifiers IUPAC name N-Isopropyl-4-[(2-methylhydraz…
Species of moth Thiotricha tetraphala Scientific classification Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta Order: Lepidoptera Family: Gelechiidae Genus: Thiotricha Species: T. tetraphala Binomial name Thiotricha tetraphala(Meyrick, 1885)[1] Synonyms[2] Thistricha tetraphala Meyrick, 1885 Thiotricha tetraphala is a species of moth in the family Gelechiidae. It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1885.[1] It is endemic to New Zealand.[3 …
Styles ofGerard TickleReference styleThe Right ReverendSpoken styleMy LordReligious styleBishop Catholicism portal Gerard William Tickle (2 November 1909 – 14 September 1994) was an English prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as the Bishop of the Forces from 1963 to 1978.[1] Born in Birkenhead in 1909, he was educated at Douai School and ordained to the priesthood on 28 October 1934. He served as Vice-Rector of the English College, Rome 1946-52 and Rector 1952-63.[2]…
For other uses, see Eastgate (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Eastgate Towne Center – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2006) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Shopping mall in Tennessee, United StatesEastgate MallInterior view of Eastgate …
2016 single by Machine Gun Kelly and Camila CabelloBad ThingsSingle by Machine Gun Kelly and Camila Cabellofrom the album Bloom ReleasedOctober 14, 2016 (2016-10-14)Recorded2016Genre Pop-rap[1] Length3:59Label EST 19XX Bad Boy Interscope Songwriter(s) Colson Baker Camila Cabello Madison Love Tony Scalzo Joe Khajadourian Alex Schwartz Producer(s)The FuturisticsMachine Gun Kelly singles chronology Young Man (2016) Bad Things (2016) No More Sad Songs (2017) Camila Cabello…
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