March 16, 1968: U.S. Army soldiers massacre more than 100 South Vietnamese civiliansMarch 12, 1968: Mauritius becomes world's newest nationMarch 31, 1968: U.S. President Johnson announces that he will not run for re-electionMarch 8, 1968: Soviet submarine K-129 sank at sea
Three North Vietnamese fishing trawlers were destroyed by the U.S. Navy and South Vietnamese forces while attempting to resupply the Viet Cong, and a fourth was turned back as part of Operation Market Time. Three of the trawlers were destroyed; a fourth vessel headed back out to sea and, because it got more than 12 miles (19 km) away from the coast and reached international waters, the U.S. Navy was forbidden from firing on the North Vietnamese ship. "American patrol boats were powerless to do anything except to request the flagless, unmarked trawler to identify itself. It refused and continued unscratched." An unidentified navy officer told the UPI, "Sure it's crazy, but it's the rules of the game."[1]
In what would later be called the "Battle of Valle Giulia", protests became violent at La Sapienza, the 650-year-old university in Rome. Italian students fought with city police outside the university's Faculty of Agriculture building on the Via di Valle Giulia. According to one account, "Students threw stones and incendiary bombs against police armed with nightsticks and hoses", and hundreds of people were injured.[2][3]
South Vietnamese troops uncovered a mass grave in the City of Hue containing about 100 bodies. Official sources said the dead all found with their hands tied behind their backs were policemen, civil servants and military men murdered by the invading Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces. The Mayor of Hue reported that the Communists had executed around 300 people during their occupation of the city.[4]
Operation Coburg, an Australian and New Zealand military action, came to an end. During the six weeks of the operation, the Australians had lost 17 killed and 61 wounded, with allied casualties including two New Zealanders and one American killed, and eight New Zealanders and six Americans wounded.[5]
The Soviet Union launched the uncrewed Zond 4 mission as a test of its Soyuz 7K-L1 space capsule and the feasibility of a crewed space mission to the Moon. By design, the launch was made "not to fly towards the Moon, but directly opposite" and to travel to a distance of 330,000 kilometres (210,000 mi) from Earth, a bit less than the closest perigee of the Moon of 356,400 kilometres (221,500 mi). After reaching its furthest distance on March 6, Zond 4 returned to Earth on March 9 but had to be destroyed after a failed re-entry.[11]
The United States made its first field test of its Spartananti-ballistic missile. The missile was designed to carry a five-megaton W-71 nuclear warhead to intercept incoming missiles and to detonate close enough to neutralize them before they re-entered the atmosphere.[12]
Television Wales and the West (TWW) an independent British TV network known in some areas of Wales as Teledu Cymru, broadcast its last original programming. Following a one-hour variety special called All Good Things..., and a five-minute commercial break, John Betjeman appeared at 11:35 in the evening with a 15-minute commentary titled Come to an End.[13][14] The next day, Harlech Television would replace TWW and fill its time with a temporary broadcast schedule called "Independent Television Service for Wales and the West", showing reruns of old TWW shows and feeds from ITV. Harlech would finally go on the air with its own network on May 20.[15]
The Liberian-registered tanker Ocean Eagle, manned by a Greek crew, ran aground at San Juan, Puerto Rico, then broke in two and spilled oil on the beaches in San Juan Harbor. The front section of the Ocean Eagle blocked the channel leading out of the harbor, trapping three U.S. Navy submarines, two American sub tenders and an American destroyer, as well as four Canadian Navy destroyers, along with five freighters.[17]
In his continuing campaign against Jews in Iraq, Iraqi Prime Minister Tahir Yahya announced a new regulation forbidding Jews from selling their property without government approval. In the nine months since the Six-Day War, Iraqi Jews had been fired from public office and had had their bank accounts frozen, while Jewish students were barred from university educations.[18]
The Presidium of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia voted to dismantle censorship of the press, an unprecedented step in a Communist nation. At the end of the week, newspapers would begin printing demands that President (and former party chief) Antonín Novotný step down.[23] The Central Publications Bureau, that had previously been charged with reviewing material before it was published, was removed from the jurisdiction of Czechoslovakia's Ministry of the Interior and suspended political censorship (although it still retained authority to enforce moral standards).[24]
Exactly a month before his assassination, Martin Luther King Jr. announced the "Nonviolent Poor People's March on Washington", to take place on Monday, April 22, 1968, and to include impoverished Americans from all races. During the rest of the month, he would work toward preparing the event.[25]
A "musical chess match" between painter Marcel Duchamp and musical composer John Cage took place at an engineering festival at Ryerson Polytechnical Institute in Toronto. With the title "Reunion", the two men (with help from Duchamp's wife Alexina) "played chess on a board hooked up with sixty-four photoresistors— one per square", with "sonic input" from independent, unrelated compositions by Gordon Mumma, David Tudor, David Behrman, and Lowell Cross, who designed the electronic circuitry. Duchamp quickly defeated Cage as an amused audience watched.[26]
What would become known as the "East L.A. walkouts" began in large numbers when thousands of Hispanic students walked out of two high schools in East Los Angeles, California. At Garfield High School, which would later become famous in the film Stand and Deliver, "2,700 of the 3,750 predominantly Mexican-American students" walked across the street when classes were dismissed for lunch, and refused to come back inside until the day's end. Hispanic students also walked out of Jefferson High School, where African American students were in the majority.[27][28]
All 67 people on board Air France Flight 212 were killed when the Boeing 707 smashed into La Grande Soufrière mountain while making its approach to Pointe-à-Pitre on the island of Guadeloupe.[29] The flight was making its sixth stop on a route that had originated in Santiago de Chile with a final destination of Paris. Almost two years later, another Air France Flight 212 on the same Santiago to Paris route would crash after taking off from Caracas to Pointe-à-Pitre, killing all 62 people on board.
In an extension of his War on Poverty, U.S. President Lyndon Johnson signed Executive Order 11399 to create the National Council on Indian Opportunity as an aid to the remaining 800,000 American Indians in the United States. In a speech to Congress titled "The Forgotten American", Johnson said, "The American Indian, once proud and free, is torn between white and tribal values; between the politics and language of the white man and his own historic culture. His problems, sharpened by years of defeat and exploitation, neglect and inadequate effort, will take years to overcome."[30]
The 84th and final episode of Lost in Space, the CBS science fiction series, was aired. The show had premiered on September 15, 1965, with the premise that the Robinson family, their robot, and a stowaway, Dr. Smith, had been launched from Earth on the Jupiter 2 on October 16, 1997.[31] The final episode, "Junkyard in Space", ended with the voyagers still lost in space.
Twenty-six passengers on a bus in North Sumatra in Indonesia were killed, and 25 more injured, when the buses brakes failed and sent the vehicle into the path of an oncoming train.[32]
A drunk, and apparently suicidal, driver killed himself and 19 passengers on a Greyhound bus outside of Baker, California when he drove westward on the Interstate 15 eastbound lanes and caused both his car and the bus to burst into flames.[33] The car driver was Michael Barry, a 39-year old cook who was reportedly "depressed over a divorce and failure to have a song published."[34] The bus, carrying 31 passengers who were on their way to a weekend in Las Vegas, departed Los Angeles at 12:01 in the afternoon and had gotten three miles east of Baker when Barry's car crossed the median from I-15 West and caused the collision at 3:55 p.m. The bodies of the 19 passengers were burned so badly that positive identification would not be completed until almost two weeks later.[35]
Chemical dispersants were first used successfully in the cleanup of an oil spill after the tanker ship General Colocotronis struck a reef outside the Eleuthera group of islands of the Bahamas and spilled 37,500 barrels (6,000 cubic meters) of heavy fuel oil in the Caribbean Sea. While some oil reached the Bahamian beaches, most was diluted by the spraying of 250 drums of dispersant from a fireboat and from trucks at the beach. After two months, the oil slick had been dispersed and diluted, cleanup was completed and the tanker was salvaged; a study by British marine biologists concluded that there was "no damage to the intertidal marine life following the use of dispersant".[36]
Representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom announced in Geneva that they had agreed to what was described as a "superpower umbrella", described as "a plan to protect nations without nuclear weapons against atomic attack". Under the agreement, the three nuclear superpowers offered joint protection to any nation that ratified what would become the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. The U.S., the USSR and UK "pledged immediate assistance for any treaty signator which feels it is being threatened by nuclear attack or becomes the victim of nuclear aggression."[37]
Newly re-elected, President Makarios of Cyprus lifted restrictions on the island republic's Turkish Cypriot community and removed barricades and roadblocks that had limited the Turkish-speaking minority from crossing outside of their neighborhoods within the Greek Cypriot dominated south.[38]
Born:Jeff Kent, American major league baseball player and second baseman, and 2000 National League MVP; in Bellflower, California
All 98 crew members of the Sovietballistic missile submarineK-129 were killed when the Golf II-class sub sank in the North Pacific Ocean, about 90 nautical miles (104 miles or 167 km) southwest of Hawaii.[39][40] Starting in 1974, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency would begin attempting to salvage the sunken submarine, using the ship Hughes Glomar Explorer. In 2005, authors Kenneth Sewell and Clint Richmond would advance the theory in their bestselling book, Red Star Rogue: The Untold Story of a Soviet Submarine's Nuclear Strike Attempt on the U.S., that K-129 had actually been trying to launch a nuclear warhead at Hawaii's Pearl Harbor and that the failed launch had caused the submarine's demise.
A political crisis in Poland was sparked by the first student protests seen in that nation since its Communist takeover. The March 4 expulsion of dissidentsAdam Michnik and Henryk Szlajfer from the University of Warsaw was protested in a rally that attracted more than 5,000 students. The peaceful rally was broken up by a state-mobilized "worker squad".[41][42][43] After word of the police crackdown spread, protests continued at Warsaw for three weeks and spread to the campuses of the state universities in Kraków, Poznań, Lublin, Wrocław and other cities.[44]
Twenty-two people, most of them students, were killed near the city of Afyonkarahisar in Turkey, when the bus they were riding in skidded on a slippery highway and fell into a 600-foot (180 m) deep ravine.[47]
The Soviet Union's uncrewed Zond 4 rocket re-entered Earth's atmosphere after a flight to gather data for a possible Soviet crewed mission to the Moon, after returning at a velocity similar to what would be encountered in an actual return from a lunar trip. Plans for the probe to land in the Soviet Union, after a decelerating "skip into the atmosphere", failed. The Zond 4's self-destruction system had to be activated as it made a ballistic re-entry, and the probe was destroyed at an altitude of 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) over the Gulf of Guinea, less than 200 kilometres (120 miles) off of the coast of West Africa.[11]
Jacek Kuroń, a former professor at the University of Warsaw and former Communist Party member, was among the many people arrested for participating in student demonstrations. He would spend two and a half years in prison on charges of inciting riots, and would be arrested several more times over the years, but would later serve as Poland's Minister of Labor and Social Policy after the fall of Communism.[49]
The town of Acme, Wyoming, located in Sheridan County, with a population of about 100, was sold to a group of Chicago investors. The town had been founded in 1910 by the Acme Coal Company, and sold for $100,000 to a Chicago group after its previous owners, Mr. and Mrs. Merton Bond, ran ads in newspapers across the nation.[50]
Signed by President Ho Chi Minh four months earlier, a decree took effect in North Vietnam outlawing local opposition to the nation's conduct of the Vietnam War. A long list of "counterrevolutionary" crimes was subject to punishments ranging from brief detention, to life in prison or the death penalty.[51]
Lucille Ball ended her second situation comedy series, The Lucy Show, with her 144th and last original episode as "Mrs. Carmichael" and Gale Gordon as "Mr. Mooney".[53] A month later, Ms. Ball would announce her return in a new series in the autumn with a new character, "Lucy Carter", Gordon as her brother-in-law, Harry Carter, and Ball's own son and daughter, Desi Arnaz Jr. and Lucie Arnaz as her TV children, "Craig" and "Kim".[54] The Carmichael children on The Lucy Show (Candy Moore as "Chris" and Jimmy Garrett as "Jerry") had not been seen since 1965.
North Vietnamese Army troops overran a secret American radar station located on Pho Pha Thi, a 5,500 foot high mountain inside Laos that was high above the North Vietnamese frontier.[55] Most of the sensitive electronic equipment was believed to have been taken by the Soviet Union, and 11 United States Air Force technicians disappeared.[56] At the time, Laos was a neutral kingdom and American involvement in the Laotian Civil War remained a secret.[57]
U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the federal government needed to support ASCIIcharacter encoding.[58] One historian would observe later that "Johnson was simply institutionalizing what was already the case: from its first implementation in 1963, ASCII was and is the standard for encoding data.[59]
After one year of being the Acting President of Indonesia, General Suharto was elected by the People's Consultative Assembly to a full five-year term as president. Suharto would be elected six more times and rule for another thirty years before being forced to resign on May 20, 1998, in the wake of a popular uprising.[60]
A landslide in the Democratic Republic of the Congo buried 260 people alive in the remote village of Kazipa, described as being located 15 miles (24 km) south of Bukavu.[61]
Mauritius was granted independence from British rule shortly after midnight, at a flag-raising ceremony in Port Louis, the capital of the small Indian Ocean island.[63] Because of the threat of violence between the Muslim majority and the Creole minority that opposed independence, the royal representative and a cousin of Queen Elizabeth, Princess Alexandra, canceled her plans to preside. Appearing in her place was Anthony Greenwood, Britain's Ministry of Housing and Local Government.[64] Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, who had been chief minister in colonial times, became the independent nation's first Prime Minister. Colonial Governor John Rennie became the first Governor-General. Ramgoolam would serve as Prime Minister until 1982, and would later serve as Governor-General from 1983 until his death in 1985. Mauritius would become a republic in 1992 on the 24th anniversary of its independence.[65]
U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson barely edged out antiwar candidate Eugene McCarthy in the New Hampshire Democratic primary, the opening event in nominations for the 1968 U.S. presidential election.[66] The vote highlighted deep divisions in the country, and the party, over Vietnam, and would demonstrate President Johnson's increasing unpopularity. Johnson received 49.6% of the votes cast, but U.S. Senator McCarthy of Minnesota— who had campaigned on a platform of ending U.S. involvement in Vietnam— got 41.9% despite being relatively unknown outside of his home state.[67] The result, "which demonstrated that Johnson was vulnerable"[68] to being defeated for re-election, would prompt other candidates to challenge the President.
The release of nerve gas by the U.S. Army killed thousands of sheep on a farm 27 miles away from the Army's Dugway Proving Ground in Utah. An F-4 aircraft had sprayed 320 gallons of the nerve agent VX in a target deep within the restricted proving ground, then released the emptied tanks. Two days later, ranchers in Skull Valley in Tooele County, Utah, began reporting that their herds of sheep had become ill, with 6,400 of the animals becoming seriously ill; those that did not die from the gas exposure would be euthanized.[69] Initially, the Army denied that it had conducted any outdoor nerve gas tests in more than a year; on March 21, however, the Army Testing Command would acknowledge the test in a letter to U.S. Senator Frank E. Moss of Utah, and "an aide to the Senator... ignored or was unaware of the fact that the Pentagon regarded the letter as private and released it to the press."[70] No human beings were affected by the VX contamination, but the U.S. Army would admit its negligence and pay $376,000 to compensate farmers for their lost livestock, and another $198,000 for the damage to their grazing lands.[71]
The world's first Rotaract club was chartered, in the United States, in Charlotte, North Carolina.[72] A youth auxiliary to the Rotary Club service organization, sponsored by Rotary International, Rotaract originally got its name from a portmanteau of the words "Rotary" and "interact". In its 50th year (2017), there would be 9,522 Rotaract clubs in 177 nations and 291,006 members.[73]
The Record Plant recording studio, founded by audio engineer Gary Kellgren and entrepreneur Chris Stone, opened in New York City with innovative sound recording and mixing techniques. The first album cut by the new studio would be Jimi Hendrix's Electric Ladyland.[74]
U.S. President Johnson made the decision to deploy an additional 30,000 American troops to South Vietnam, but would rescind the order in the wake of the results of the New Hampshire Primary; by month's end, he would revise the deployment to 13,500 troops.[75]
The nationwide introduction of the "child-proof cap" for medicines was announced at a news conference in Chicago, three days before the start of National Poison Prevention Week.[76] The new type of container had been developed in Canada and had been tested in Tacoma, Washington during 1967, where local pediatricians had determined that their patients couldn't open the bottle unless they knew to push down on the cap before it could be turned. The Journal of the American Pediatrics Society reported in its most recent journal that the number of children treated for serious poisoning at one Tacoma hospital over a six-month period had decreased from 50 to only three.
As the United States sought to maintain the price of $35.20 per ounce for gold to maintain the value of the British pound by selling gold reserves to the United Kingdom, unprecedented purchases were made on the international gold selling markets; $400,000,000 worth of gold was sold in a single day on the London Gold Exchange.[77] The United States requested that trading on the London Gold Market be suspended, and the market was temporarily closed the next day. The London "gold pool" would be closed permanently three days later.[78]
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference, which had successfully advanced African-American civil rights under the leadership of Martin Luther King Jr., moved into the cause of fighting for the rights of impoverished Americans of all races. Dr. King convened a meeting in Atlanta that brought together over 70 "representatives of black, white, Chicano, Puerto Rican, and American Indian groups" to discuss the strategy for combating poverty.[79]
ABC aired the final original episode of its Batman television series with Adam West and Burt Ward. The final guest villain was Zsa Zsa Gabor as "Minerva" in a 30-minute episode titled "Minerva, Mayhem and Millionaires".[80]
The Czechoslovakian Communist Party's Politburo voted to institute a process of political rehabilitation for party members who had been purged from their jobs during the 1950s.[81]
Born:
Megan Follows, Canadian-born American television actress known for being the star of the Canadian Anne of Green Gables film series, and as the co-star of American TV series Reign; in Toronto
Britain's Chancellor of the Exchequer, Roy Jenkins, announced at 1:00 in the morning that "The London Gold Market will be closed today, Friday, March 15. This is at the request of the United States Government. At a meeting of the Privy Council held this morning at Buckingham Palace, Her Majesty the Queen approved a proclamation appointing Friday, 15th March, to be observed as a Bank Holiday throughout the United Kingdom. The banks are, however, being asked to provide their domestic customers with normal cash requirements in sterling. The authorities are requesting that the stock exchanges also be closed."[82][83]
India's Prime Minister Indira Gandhi announced that her nation would not sign the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[85] India would continue to work on its atomic weapons program and would detonate its first atomic bomb on May 18, 1974.
Twenty-six people were killed and 30 injured near outside of Madrid when an express train collided with a freight car carrying a cargo of steel tracks, near Santa María de la Alameda.[86]
The My Lai Massacre took place as Company C of the First Battalion of the U.S. Army's 20th Infantry Regiment killed 109 women, children and elderly men[88] in Xom Lang, a small portion of the Son My village, and which U.S. military maps had identified as "My Lai (4)",[89] within South Vietnam's Quảng Nam province. Other estimates given are "between 347 and 504 Vietnamese civilians were killed".[90] The Army would cover up the incident for more than a year until a helicopter pilot who had seen the aftermath, Ronald Ridenhour, was told about the massacre at "Pinkville" by other members of Company C. After confirming the story with other company members, Ridenour, in turn, would notify his Arizona congressman, Morris K. Udall, the following March, and 26 soldiers would be brought up on charges in September. Investigative reporter Seymour M. Hersh would break the story in the newspapers of November 13, 1969.[91] U.S. Army 2nd Lieutenant William Calley, who gave the order to fire, was court-martialed along with 11 other soldiers; only Calley would be convicted. Initially sentenced to life imprisonment, he would be paroled in 1974.[92][93] Public outrage over the massacre would further undermine public support for the U.S. efforts in Vietnam.
Seventeen people were killed by a fire caused when the American freighter African Star collided with Intercity No. 11, an oil barge being towed by the tugboat Midwest Cities, on the Mississippi River in Louisiana.[94] The African Star, a refrigerated ship, was nearing Pointe à la Hache, Louisiana when the collision occurred.[95]
U.S. Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York, former U.S. Attorney General and the younger brother of the late President John F. Kennedy, entered the race for the Democratic Party presidential nomination and announced that he would challenge U.S. President Johnson at the August 26 national convention.[96][97]
A head-on collision between two buses in Turkey killed 35 people and injured 45 more. The two buses had both been traveling the highway between Istanbul and Edirne.[102] The bus accident was one of four that day with a high fatality rate. In Nigeria, 19 people were killed and 12 injured when a bus collided with an oil truck 75 miles north of Lagos; 10 were killed and 30 injured when a bus overturned in Lazarevac, a suburb of the Yugoslavian capital of Belgrade; and nine drowned south of Belgrade near Kraljevo when their bus hit a tree and toppled into the Ibar River.[103]
The London Gold Pool, which had been established by the central banks of the United States and eight Western European nations in 1961, was disbanded after the loss of control over purchases of gold reserves.[104][105]
A demonstration in London's Grosvenor Square, against American involvement in the Vietnam War turned violent; 91 people were injured and 200 demonstrators were arrested.[106][107]
In a ceremony that was not reported until a week after it happened, the American flag was lowered at Japan's Iwo Jima after 23 years. A group of about 50 American servicemen climbed to Mount Suribachi, where a U.S. flag had flown since February 23, 1945, during the bloody Battle of Iwo Jima, and "Suribachi was one of the few places in the world where the American flag flew 24 hours a day instead of from dawn to sunset".[108] The lowering came as the United States prepared to return Iwo Jima and the neighboring Bonin islands before year's end. After the old flagpole was removed, a copper replica of the U.S. flag was placed at the Iwo Jima Memorial.[109]
The Philippine Armysummarily executed 28 Moro Muslim soldiers who had mutinied after not being properly paid by the Army while training. While there is a dispute as to the circumstances of the execution, including whether it actually happened, news of the event would be "an important factor giving rise to the founding of the Muslim Independence Movement" with the Muslim minority seeking autonomy or independence in the southern Philippine islands in Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago.[110]
Two adults were killed, and 28 high school students from the Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium were wounded when an Israeli school bus was blasted by a Palestinian fedayeen land mine that had been planted in the road near Israel's border with Jordan. The bus had been making a field trip from Tel Aviv to the Negev Desert and struck the mine near Be'er Ora, 12 miles north of Eilat.[111][112] Israeli Defense Forces would retaliate with an attack on the Jordanian village of Karameh.[113]
The United States departed from the gold standard by eliminating the mandate that U.S. currency deposits be backed by the U.S. gold reserve at the rate of 25 cents per dollar, and eliminated the requirement for backing notes.[115]
The U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare issued nationwide guidelines to prevent racial discrimination, "applying the racial rules for the first time to the entire nation rather than to the South alone".[116]
In response to the student protests at Warsaw, the First Secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party, Wladyslaw Gomulka, blamed the uprising on "Zionist revisionists" and told his fellow Communists that there were three types of Polish Jews—the "patriotic Jews" who were loyal to the government; Zionists who wanted to undermine the state; and "cosmopolitans" who were neither Jews nor Poles" and who tended to avoid any line of work toward building the socialist fatherland.[117] When the complete text of the speech was published in the Soviet Union, Gomulka's demand that Zionist Jews be encouraged to leave Poland had the "unplanned effect of reinforcing the hopes of many Soviet Jews eager to emigrate to Israel or the West."[118]
Student protests began at Howard University in Washington, D.C., and were marked by "the first building takeover on a college campus",[119] signaling a new era of militant student activism on American college campuses. For five days, students staged a sit-in of the administration building, temporarily shutting down the historically black university.[120] The impetus for the demonstration was the punishment of 37 students who had disrupted the university's Charter Day celebration on March 1.[121] Additional causes protested were the school's ROTC program and military recruitment; the disproportionate number of African-Americans being sent into combat in the Vietnam War; and the lack of curriculum of African-American studies.
During the Orbital Workshop (OWS) preliminary design review, it was suggested that the Apollo Applications Program (AAP) vehicles contain a library of material of an operational, technical, and recreational nature for use by the flight crews. Loewy and Snaith, Inc., had made a similar suggestion. A survey of AAP crew members was being conducted to determine the type and quantity of such materials the crews might desire so that design engineers could arrive at a preliminary systems approach to an inflight library and evaluate the impact.[122]
The United Kingdom's Chancellor of the Exchequer, Roy Jenkins, announced a 10% increase in taxes in the form of higher surcharges on alcohol, tobacco, gasoline and oil, and gambling, as well as a long list of consumer goods. The move was made to add £774 million ($2.2 billion) to the budget.[123] The basic British income tax rate of 41.25%, however, remained the same.[124]
At 1:40 in the morning, an American subversive group toppled a Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) electrical tower with dynamite charges outside of Berkeley, California. The destruction of the tower brought down two 115,000 volt transmission lines, cutting off power to the University of California and to the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory. Power at the radiation laboratory was quickly fixed by emergency backup generators, and the PG&E utility restored partial service to the university by 8:00 in the morning. Two days later, the aerial cable of Pacific Bell was brought down in Contra Costa County, disrupting phone service in Berkeley and Oakland.[127]
The Battle of Karameh took place in the town of Karameh in Jordan, as the Israel Defense Forces forces and tanks crossed the border with 15,000 troops to move against the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization, where a smaller force defended the PLO guerrillas.[129] "Although hopelessly outnumbered and outgunned by Israeli forces", an author would later note, "the Palestinians stood and fought valiantly",[130] and King Hussein ordered the Jordanian Army, with tanks and artillery, to come to their aid. Ten hours later, IDF retreated back across the border, but not before 28 of its members had been killed and 90 wounded. The Palestinians had more than ten times the number of casualties, but the legend of their defense against superior numbers would lead to more Palestinians joining the fight against Israel.[131]
Governor Nelson Rockefeller of New York surprised supporters who had been expecting him to challenge former vice president Richard Nixon for the Republican Party nomination for president. "Quite frankly", Rockefeller said, "I want it clear at this time that the majority of party leaders want the candidacy of Richard Nixon at this time. It would therefore be illogical and unreasonable that I would try to arouse their support.[132]
Gerhart Eisler, 71, East German politician and former U.S. resident who was described in 1946 as "the No. 1 Communist spy in the United States".[134] After fleeing the U.S. in 1949, Eisler became a member of East Germany's Communist Party and was Chairman of the State Radio Committee.
On the first day of spring, Antonín Novotný resigned, under pressure, from his remaining job as President of Czechoslovakia in the wake of a scandal from the defection of General Jan Sejna. A reporter at the time noted that Novotny's resignation "was the first time a Communist leader has been removed by public pressure."[136] Two months earlier, Novotný had been replaced in the more powerful job of General Secretary of the Czechoslovakian Communist Party by Alexander Dubček. Czechoslovakia's National Assembly voted, 282 to 6, to name Ludvík Svoboda as the new president,[137] causing alarm in the other Communist nations of Eastern Europe and would "mark the beginning of the Prague Spring, a period of high hopes that ran into the summer, underscored by Dubček's pledge: 'There is only one path and that is forward.'"[138]
Daniel Cohn-Bendit, who would soon be nicknamed "Danny the Red", and 150 other students occupied the eighth-floor faculty lounge in the administration building at University of Paris X Nanterre, commonly referred to as the university of Nanterre.[139] The action, originally set to protest the arrest of six Nanterre students who had been protesting the Vietnam War, would set in motion a chain of events that would lead France to the brink of revolution in May.[140] After the publication of their demands, the students left the building without any trouble, but the incident would become known as the "Movement of 22 March".[141]
U.S. Army General William C. Westmoreland, who had guided the military operations in the Vietnam War since 1964, was recalled by President Johnson, effective July 2. General Westmoreland was reassigned to the Joint Chiefs of Staff as Johnson changed American conduct of the war.[142]
Born:
Javier Castillejo, Spanish boxer recognized as the WBC light-middleweight champion from 1999 to 2001, and WBA middleweight champion from 2006 to 2007; in Madrid
Euronymous (stage name for Øystein Aarseth), Norwegian heavy metal guitarist and co-founder of the black metal band Mayhem; in Egersund (murdered, 1993)
Leaders of the Communist Party organizations of six of the members of the Warsaw Pact (the Soviet Union, Poland, East Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia) met at a hastily called meeting in East Germany at Dresden to discuss the dramatic reforms that were taking place in Czechoslovakia. The meeting was attended, without notice, by several generals from the Soviet Union's Red Army. Dubcek of Czechoslovakia was heavily criticized by the other leaders, starting with his counterpart from Poland, Wladyslaw Gomulka.[143] However, no plan for suppressing the reforms was recommended at the meeting, and Dubcek would report later that the other states pledged to maintain their policy of "non-interference in internal affairs."[144]
The UCLA Bruins defeated the University of North Carolina Tar Heels, 78 to 55, to win the NCAA basketball championship. The 23-point victory was the largest in NCAA finals history up to that time.[145]
Marco Aurelio Robles was removed from office as President of Panama after that nation's National Assembly voted, 29 to 0, to convict him on articles of impeachment following a ten-day trial. Another 12 deputies who were supporters of Robles had boycotted the trial. First Vice President Max Delvalle was then administered the oath of office, but Robles refused to accept the legislative decision. General Bolívar Vallarino, commander of the Panamanian National Guard, announced that it would keep Robles in office.[149] The Guard invaded the opposition party headquarters after midnight and began making arrests, then barred the deputies from entering the legislative building. On April 5, Panama's Supreme Court ruled, 8 to 2, that Robles had been deprived of his right to a fair trial, and that Robles was legally the President.[150]
The United Nations Security Council approved its Resolution 248, condemning Israel's attack on the Jordanian village of Karameh.[152] The resolution also condemned "All violent incidents and other violations of the ceasefire".[153] This paragraph was added to the resolution to appease four nations on the UN Security Council (the United Kingdom, the United States, the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Canada, who, on March 21, had voiced concerns regarding terrorist attacks on Israel that had preceded the Israeli retaliation at Karameh.[154]
All 61 passengers and crew on Aer Lingus Flight 712 were killed when the plane crashed into the sea near Tuskar Rock in Ireland while flying from Cork to London. The pilot sent one last message to air traffic control in London, "Twelve thousand feet, spinning rapidly".[155][156]
The 58th and final original episode of The Monkees was aired on NBC television in the United States. The series had premiered on September 12, 1966; a historian would later write "Though the Monkees boasted some great individual musicians it was their television show that rocketed the group to a whole new level."[158]
U.S. President Lyndon Johnson met with his group of advisers, led by Secretary of State Dean Rusk and Secretary of Defense Clark Clifford, who had come to be known as "The Wise Men". After long supporting and encouraging Johnson's conduct of the Vietnam War, a majority of the group informed him bluntly that "an American military solution in Vietnam was no longer attainable" and that he should take steps to disengage the U.S. from further participation.[160] Another author would note that former Secretary of State Dean Acheson told Johnson "the financial and social costs of the struggle... would be hard for the United States to sustain" and noted that "The Wisemen's conclusion that the United States had to find a new way out of Vietnam rocked Johnson as nothing else had."[161]
Ozark Airlines Flight 965 from Sioux Falls, South Dakota to St. Louis, a DC-9 jetliner, was in a collision with a small Cessna 150 as both aircraft approached the Lambert-St. Louis Airport. The Ozark captain, Russell J. Fitch, was able to regain control of the jet after its right wing had been clipped by the Cessna and sustained a fuel tank rupture. Witnesses reported that the Cessna apparently banked to the left and into the path of the DC-9 as the two planes prepared to land on separate runways. The wings of the Cessna fell off and both of the people on board— a flight instructor and his student— were killed when the Cessna fuselage crashed in the suburb of Hazelwood, Missouri.[164][165]
At Columbia University in New York City, student Mark Rudd and about 150 other supporters of the university's branch of Students for a Democratic Society occupied the administration building to protest Columbia's continued association with the Institute for Defense Analyses. Columbia's president, Grayson L. Kirk, who was also on the IDA Board of Directors, was not present. After a few hours, the protesters left, and Columbia's Dean of Students ordered Rudd and five other student leaders to report to his office for discipline action. The student protests at the university would attract more participants the following month.[166]
The Gallup Poll organization announced the results of a cross-section survey of 1,145 registered voters and noted that, for the first time in opinion surveys, Richard M. Nixon was favored over U.S. President Lyndon Johnson and former Alabama Governor George C. Wallace in a three-way race. Nixon was favored by 41% of voters, Johnson by 39% and Wallace by 11%. In the first survey, taken in October 1966, President Johnson had had a 51% to 34% edge over Nixon.[167]
Gagarin
Died:Yuri Gagarin, 34, Soviet pilot and cosmonaut and the first man to travel into outer space, was killed along with test pilot Vladimir Seryogin, 45, when their MiG-15UTI crashed near Kirzhach.[168][169] In 2004, declassified Soviet reports showed that a Sukhoi Su-15 jet had been "flying in the area at low altitude" and, while breaking the sound barrier, passed close to Gagarin's plane "causing extensive turbulence" that sent the MiG-15 into a spin.[170]
The Storting, Norway's parliament, enacted legislation creating the University of Trondheim and the University of Tromsø. The Tromsø institution, located north of the 69°N latitude and inside the Arctic Circle, is the world's northernmost university.[172]
Edson Luís de Lima Souto, 18, a high school student in Brazil, was shot by the police of Guanabara state while campaigning for cheaper meals at a restaurant for low-income students.[176] Students carried him to the legislative assembly building in Rio de Janeiro, insisting on an autopsy. Thousands of people would attend his funeral and his death would lead to demonstrations across the nation, culminating in "The March of the 100,000" on June 25.[177] Forty years later, a memorial to the student would be erected in Rio.[178]
Larry Payne, 16, a high school student in Memphis, was shot at close range by a city patrolman while attending a protest march during the Memphis sanitation strike. While the officer claimed that Payne had been stopped from looting and that the youth had threatened him with a knife, no stolen property nor a knife could be found to support his statement, and 25 civilian witnesses said that Payne had emerged from a room empty-handed when he was shot.[179]
A group of 500 black activists, led by Robert F. Williams, assembled at the black-owned Twenty Grand Motel in Detroit to proclaim their intention to create the Republic of New Africa, an independent black nation located in areas of the southeastern United States that had predominantly black populations.[180]
At the University of Paris, commonly called "the Sorbonne" because of its location, the Dean called on French police to arrest students who had been demonstrating peacefully in their demand of reforms.[181]
The first two games of the new North American Soccer League were played, with the earlier of two games in Atlanta, where the Atlanta Chiefs beat the Detroit Cougars, 2–1, after a scoreless first half, in front of 11,086 fans.[184] The first scoring came in a game that started an hour later in Houston, where the Luiz Juracy of the Houston Stars scored 3 goals in a 6–0 win over the Dallas Tornado before 1,472 fans.[185] The season would end where it began, in Atlanta, with the Chiefs winning the 1968 NASL championship at home on September 28.
Gamal Abdel Nasser, the President of the United Arab Republic (limited to Egypt), announced the Baian 30 Maris,[186] a cleanup of corruption within the UAR government, as well as a complete reform of his political party, the Arab Socialist Union. An author would later describe the declaration as a "major shift under Nasser from repression to liberalization"; Egyptian voters would approve the reforms in a referendum on July 1.[187]
U.S. President Johnson announced at a press conference that he would preempt regular television and radio programming on Sunday to address the nation about the Vietnam War to "discuss troop speculations that have taken place, what our plans are, and what information we are able to talk about now." He added, "I will also talk about other questions of some importance", without elaborating.[188]
A day after buying a .243 caliber rifle and telescopic sight from Aeromarine Supply, a gun shop in Birmingham, Alabama, escaped convict James Earl Ray would exchange the weapon for a more powerful rifle, the .30-06 Remington Gamemaster. The new rifle would be found five days later near the site of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr..[189]
A February 18 agreement took effect creating the "Federation of the Arab Emirates" between Abu Dhabi and Dubai, the federation would be joined by four of the other sheikdoms on the Arabian Peninsula over the next several years and would become independent as the United Arab Emirates in 1971.[190]
Died:Bobby Driscoll, 31, American child actor known for Song of the South, his dead body was found in a derelict building in Greenwich Village, New York[194]
U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson announced, in a nationally televised address, that he would not seek re-election as President of the United States.[195] One historian would write later that the speech was "a political event that would wreck not only the Democratic Party but the liberal consensus that Democrats had forged in the 1960s."[196] Another would note that the speech "marked a critical turning point in the Vietnam War" as Johnson put a limit on the increasing deployment of ground troops, a halt to bombing north of the 20th parallel, and an offer of unconditional peace negotiations with North Vietnam.[197] Johnson began speaking from the White House at 9:00 in the evening, and continued for 35 minutes in describing why he had committed to fighting the war; and then he spoke about his own career, observing that Americans had united to make "a stronger nation, a more just society, and a land of greater opportunity and fulfillment because of what we have all done together in these years of unparalleled achievement." "What we won when all of our people united", he added, "just must not now be lost in suspicion, distrust, selfishness, and politics among any of our people." Those people still listening at 9:40 p.m. were stunned when Johnson concluded his address by saying, "With America's sons in the fields far away; with America's future under challenge right here at home; with our hopes and the world's hopes for peace in the balance every day, I do not believe that I should devote an hour or a day of my time to any personal partisan causes or to any duties other than the awesome duties of this office--the Presidency of your country. Accordingly, I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President."[198][199]
References
^"Reds' Assault Smashed; U.S. Lets Foe's Ship Flee— Munitions Vessel Escapes Beyond 12-Mile Limit", Chicago Tribune, March 2, 1968, p1
^Alessandro Orsini, Anatomy of the Red Brigades: The Religious Mind-set of Modern Terrorists (Cornell University Press, 2011) pp138-139
^"Leftist Students in Rome Riot; Stores Smashed; 200 Injured", Chicago Tribune, March 2, 1968, p4
^"News Briefs—National", Chicago Tribune, March 2, 1968, p3
^"Cash, Johnny", in The Encyclopedia of Popular Music, ed. by Colin Larkin (Omnibus Press, 2011) p13
^ abRex D. Hall and David J. Shayler, Soyuz: A Universal Spacecraft (Springer, 2003) pp25-26
^John M. Clearwater, Johnson, McNamara, and the Birth of SALT and the ABM Treaty 1963–1969 (Universal-Publishers, 1996) pp41-42
^"Television & Radio Programmes", The Guardian (Manchester), March 2, 1968, p. 2
^Bernard Sendall, Independent Television in Britain, Volume 2: Expansion and Change, 1958–68 (Springer, 1983) p361
^Jamie Medhurst, A History of Independent Television in Wales (University of Wales Press, 2010) p. 169
^Esther Kim Lee, A History of Asian American Theatre (Cambridge University Press, 2006) p. 29
^"Tanker Splits, Traps Warships—Puerto Rican Shore Swept by Oil Slicks", Chicago Tribune, March 4, 1968, p. 1
^Martin Gilbert, In Ishmael's House: A History of Jews in Muslim Lands (McClelland & Stewart, 2010) p. 287
^"FRAZIER STOPS MATHIS IN 11TH ROUND— 18,096 See Philadelphian Gain Part of Heavy Crown", Chicago Tribune, March 5, 1968, p3-1
^"Benvenuti, Nino", in Historical Dictionary of Boxing, by John Grasso (Scarecrow Press, 2013) p61
^Jill L. Levenson, Shakespeare in Performance: Romeo and Juliet (Manchester University Press, 1987) p104
^"Queen Sees Nude Lovers in New Film", Chicago Tribune, March 5, 1968, p2
^"The Scheming Apparatchik of the Prague Spring", by Mary Heimann, in 1948 and 1968 – Dramatic Milestones in Czech and Slovak History, ed. by Laura Cashman (Routledge, 2013) p88
^Galia Golan, Reform Rule in Czechoslovakia: The Dubcek Era 1968–1969 (Cambridge University Press, 1973) pp114-115
^ abPhilip A. Goduti Jr., RFK and MLK: Visions of Hope, 1963–1968 (McFarland, 2017) p273
^David Nicholls, The Cambridge Companion to John Cage (Cambridge University Press, 2002) p162
^"Classes Boycotted by Student Groups at 2 High Schools", Los Angeles Times, March 5, 1968, p3
^Max Elbaum, Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals Turn to Lenin, Mao and Che (Verso Books, 2002) p30
^"67 Are Killed in Guadeloupe Plane Crash", Chicago Tribune, March 6, 1968, p1
^Donald L. Fixico, Bureau of Indian Affairs (ABC-CLIO, 2012) p134
^"Bus Crash Kills 26", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 7, 1968, p6
^"20 DIE IN FLAMING CRASH OF BUS, CAR— 12 Injured as Greyhound and Wrong-Way Vehicle Collide", Los Angeles Times, March 8, 1968, p1
^"Motorist Committing Suicide May Have Caused Bus Crash", Los Angeles Times, March 9, 1968, p1
^"Last Bus Crash Victim Is Named", San Bernardino County (CA) Sun, March 21, 1968, p7
^"Dispersant Usage for Offshore Oil Spills", by R. A. Coit, in Chemical Dispersants for the Control of Oil Spills, ed. by L. T. McCarthy (ASTM International, 1978) p230
^"U.S., British, Russ O.K. 'Umbrella'", Chicago Tribune, March 8, 1968, p9
^Nasuh Uslu, The Cyprus Question as an Issue of Turkish Foreign Policy and Turkish-American Relations, 1959–2003 (Nova Publishers, 2003) p109
^Paul E. Fontenoy, Submarines: An Illustrated History of Their Impact (ABC-CLIO, 2007) p60
^"CIA tells Russia of Soviet sea disaster". The Times. No. 64466. London. 17 October 1992. col F-G, p. 10.
^"Dissent in Poland, 1968–78: the end of Revisionism and the rebirth of the Civil Society", by Jacques Rupnik, in Opposition in Eastern Europe, ed. by Rudolph L. Tokes (Springer, 2016) p66
^Andrzej Leon Sowa, Historia polityczna Polski 1944–1991, pp339–340
^"Warsaw Hit by Rioting Second Day", Chicago Tribune, March 10, 1968, p1
^Arthur J. Wolak, Forced Out: The Fate of Polish Jewry in Communist Poland (Fenestra Books, 2004) p62
^Sandy Baldwin, The Internet Unconscious: On the Subject of Electronic Literature (Bloomsbury, 2015) p132
^"The United States and Indonesia: Personal Reflections", by Edward Masters, in Legacy of Engagement in Southeast Asia, ed. by Ann Marie Murphy and Bridget Welsh (Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2008) p326
^"Landslide Buries Congo Village, 260 Inhabitants", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 13, 1968, p1
^"Italy Ousts Parliament, Election Set", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 12, 1968, p2
^"New Nation Emerges In Race Clash— British Avert Violence in Mauritius", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 12, 1968, p2
^"Mauritius Free Now— Strife-Torn and Poor", Tucson (AZ) Daily Citizen, March 12, 1968, p2
^"Mauritius", in Heads of States and Governments: A Worldwide Encyclopedia of Over 2,300 Leaders, 1945 through 1992, by Harris M. Lentz (Fitzroy Dearborn, 1994) p548
^"LBJ Gets 50% In N.H., 41% For McCarthy", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 13, 1968, p1
^Michael Nelson, Guide to the Presidency and the Executive Branch (CQ Press, 2012) p438
^William T. Walker, America in the Cold War: A Reference Guide (ABC-CLIO, 2013) p88
^"1968 My Lai Massacre", by Jeff Woods, in Disasters, Accidents, and Crises in American History: A Reference Guide to the Nation's Most Catastrophic Events, ed. by Ballard C. Campbell (Infobase Publishing, 2008) p334
^William Thomas Allison, My Lai: An American Atrocity in the Vietnam War (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012)
^"Fiery Crash Kills 11 on Mississippi", Pittsburgh Press, March 16, 1968, p1
^"Bus Crash Toll Heavy", Ottawa Journal, March 18, 1968, p5
^"WILD GOLD SALES BROUGHT TO HALT— Agreement by 7 Nations Will Establish Two-Price System", Los Angeles Times, March 18, 1968, p1
^"The Bretton Woods International Monetary System", by Michael D. Bordo, in A Retrospective on the Bretton Woods System: Lessons for International Monetary Reform, ed. by Michael D. Bordo and Barry Eichengreen (University of Chicago Press, 2007) p70
^"London Police Battle Mob at U.S. Embassy", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 18, 1968, p1
^Piers Brendon, Eminent Elizabethans: Rupert Murdoch, Prince Charles, Margaret Thatcher & Mick Jagger (Random House, 2012) p189
^"Flag On Iwo Jima Lowered", Cincinnati Enquirer, March 26, 1968, p1
^"Marine Tells How Old Glory Left Iwo", Chicago Tribune, March 26, 1968, p3
^"Jabidah", in Historical Dictionary of the Philippines, by Artemio R. Guillermo (Scarecrow Press, 2012) p209
^"Israeli School Bus Hits Mine— Two Killed; Leaders Warn Jordan", Lincoln (NE) Star, March 19, 1968, p10
^Myra Williamson, Terrorism, War and International Law: The Legality of the Use of Force Against Afghanistan in 2001 (Routledge, 2016) p127
^Robert D. Kumamoto, International Terrorism & American Foreign Relations, 1945–1976 (University Press of New England, 1999) p118
^Michael D. Bordo, et al., Strained Relations: US Foreign-Exchange Operations and Monetary Policy in the Twentieth Century (University of Chicago Press, 2015) p399
^"End Segregation Deadline Set", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 19, 1968, p2
^Frankel, Jonathan (1997). "The Soviet Regime and Anti-Zionism: An Analysis". In Mendelsohn, Ezra (ed.). Essential Papers on Jews and the Left. New York University Press. p. 461.
^"Force Negro University to Close Doors". Chicago Tribune. March 21, 1968. p. 1.
^"Negroes Seize Howard University Building, Phones, In Dispute Over Disciplinary Move". Richmond Palladium-Item. Richmond, Indiana. AP. March 20, 1968. p. 2.
^"Dearer motoring, drinking, smoking and gambling". The Guardian. Manchester. March 20, 1968. p. 1.
^"Heavy New Taxes Slapped On Britons". Pittsburgh Press. March 19, 1968. p. 1.
^"Norway's Crown Prince To Marry Commoner". Ottawa Journal. March 19, 1968. p. 1.
^Buckland, Raymond (2005). "Leonard, Gladys Osborne". The Spirit Book: The Encyclopedia of Clairvoyance, Channeling, and Spirit Communication. New York: Visible Ink Press. pp. 225–226.
^"Subversive Influences in Riots, Looting and Burning", Hearings Before the Committee on Un-American Activities: House of Representatives, June 28, 1968, p2157
^"ISRAEL HITS JORDAN BASES— Troops Move Against Arab Guerrillas", Chicago Tribune, March 21, 1968, p1
^"Karameh, Battle of", by Paul G. Pierfaoli Jr., in The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History, ed. by Spencer C. Tucker and Priscilla Roberts (ABC-CLIO, 2008) pp570-571
^"Westmoreland New Army Chief— No Successor Named for U.S. Commander", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, March 23, 1968, p1
^"The Prague Spring, Poland and the Warsaw Pact Invasion", by Lukasz Kaminski, in The Prague Spring and the Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1968: Forty Years Later, ed. by M. Mark Stolarik (Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 2010) p99
^H. Gordon Skilling, Czechoslovakia's Interrupted Revolution (Princeton University Press, 2015) p208
^"U. C. L. A. Wins Title— N. Carolina Bows, 78-55, in Finals", Chicago Tribune, March 24, 1968, p2-1
^Stephen Mulligan, Were You There?: Over 300 Wonderful, Weird, and Wacky Moments from the Pittsburgh Civic/Mellon Arena (Dorrance Publishing, 2011) p30
^"Gagarin, Yuri", in Historical Guide to NASA and the Space Program, by Ann Beardsley (Rowman & Littlefield, 2016) p97
^"King's Memphis March Erupts in Riot; One Slain". Tampa Tribune. March 29, 1968. p. 1.
^Midgaard, Knut (1982). "Norway: the interplay of local and central decisions". In Daalder, Hans; Shils, Edward (eds.). Universities, Politicians and Bureaucrats: Europe and the United States. Cambridge University Press. p. 316.
^Langland, Victoria (2013). Speaking of Flowers: Student Movements and the Making and Remembering of 1968 in Military Brazil. Duke University Press. p. 107.
^Wright, Jaime; Dassin, Joan (1986). Torture in Brazil: A Shocking Report on the Pervasive Use of Torture by Brazilian Military Governments, 1964-1979, Secretly Prepared by the Archdiocese of São Paulo. University of Texas Press. pp. 113–114.
^Rami Ginat, Egypt's Incomplete Revolution: Lutfi Al-Khuli and Nasser's Socialism in the 1960s (Routledge, 2013) p177
^Jason Brownlee, Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization (Cambridge University Press, 2007) p89
^"Johnson to Reveal War Strategy", Philadelphia Inquirer, March 31, 1968, p1
^"Who and What Killed Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.", by U.S. Rep. Louis Stokes, Chairman, House Select Committee on Assassinations, Ebony magazine (April 1981) p77
^"The Persian Gulf Principalities", in Middle East Record 1968, ed. by Daniel Dishon (John Wiley & Sons, 1973) pp671-672
16 MB SD Card 512 MB SD Card 1 GB SD Card Secure Digital (SD) adalah sebuah format kartu memori flash. Kartu Secure Digital digunakan dalam alat portabel, seperti PDA, kamera digital dan telepon genggam. Kartu SD dikembangkan oleh SanDisk, Toshiba, dan Panasonic berdasarkan Kartu Multi Media (MMC) yang sudah lebih dulu ada. Selain memiliki sistem pengaman yang lebih bagus daripada MMC, kartu SD juga bisa dengan mudah dibedakan dari MMC karena memiliki ukuran yang lebih tebal dibanding kartu M...
Joplin, MissouriKotaMotto: Proud of Our Past...Shaping Our Future'Lokasi di negara bagian MissouriNegara Amerika SerikatNegara bagianMissouriCountyJasper, NewtonBergabung1873Pemerintahan • Wali kotaMike WoolstonLuas • Total81,7 km2 (31,5 sq mi) • Luas daratan81,4 km2 (31,4 sq mi) • Luas perairan0,2 km2 (0,1 sq mi)Ketinggian306 m (1.004 ft)Populasi (2010)[1] •...
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Oktober 2022. Artikel ini membutuhkan rujukan tambahan agar kualitasnya dapat dipastikan. Mohon bantu kami mengembangkan artikel ini dengan cara menambahkan rujukan ke sumber tepercaya. Pernyataan tak bersumber bisa saja dipertentangkan dan dihapus.Cari sumber: ...
Kaligrafi Utsmaniyah abad ke-18, bertuliskan frasa Ali Khalifatullah dalam tulisan cermin dua arah. Kaligrafi Islam, yang dalam juga sering disebut sebagai kaligrafi Arab atau seni lukis huruf Arab (Bahasa Arab : الخط العربي), merupakan suatu seni artistik tulisan tangan, atau kaligrafi, serta meliputi hal penjilidan,[1] yang berkembang di negara-negara yang umumnya memiliki warisan budaya Islam. Bentuk seni ini berdasarkan pada tulisan Arab, yang dalam waktu lama perna...
Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Ruanda (disambigua). Disambiguazione – Rwanda rimanda qui. Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Rwanda (disambigua). Ruanda (dettagli) (dettagli) (RW) Ubumwe, Umurimo, Gukunda Igihugu(IT) Unità, Lavoro, Patriottismo Ruanda - Localizzazione Dati amministrativiNome completoRepubblica del Ruanda Nome ufficiale(RW) Repubulika y'u Rwanda(SW) Jamhuri ya Rwanda(FR) République du Rwanda(EN) Republic of Rwanda Lingue ufficia...
Maritime service branch of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps This article is about the navy of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. For the navy of Iran's regular military, see Islamic Republic of Iran Navy. Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Navyنیروی دریایی سپاه پاسداران انقلاب اسلامیFounded17 September 1985 (38 years ago) (1985-09-17)Country IranTypeNavy, maritime land forceRoleNaval warfare, amphibious warfareSize+20,000 (2020)...
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Februari 2023. Koin Herodes dari Chalcis, menunjukkan Herodes dari Chalcis dengan saudaranya Agrippa dari Yudea memahkotai Kaisar Romawi Claudius. Herodes dari Chalcis (meninggal tahun 48 M), juga dikenal sebagai Herodes V, merupakan putra Aristobulus IV, dan cucu l...
Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat GFK (disambiguasi). Artikel ini memiliki beberapa masalah. Tolong bantu memperbaikinya atau diskusikan masalah-masalah ini di halaman pembicaraannya. (Pelajari bagaimana dan kapan saat yang tepat untuk menghapus templat pesan ini) Artikel ini terlalu bergantung pada referensi dari sumber primer. Mohon perbaiki artikel ini dengan menambahkan sumber sekunder atau tersier. (Pelajari cara dan kapan saatnya untuk menghapus pesan templat ini) Artikel ini membutuhkan rujuk...
Association to represent cave divers and administrate and support cave diving in Australia Cave Divers Association of AustraliaAbbreviationCDAAFormation29 September 1973 (1973-09-29)TypeNGOLegal statusIncorporated associationPurposeRecreational cave diving administration, certification & training.LocationMount Gambier, South AustraliaRegion served AustraliaMembership 679 (2008)[1]National DirectorGrant Pearce[2]Main organNational CommitteeWebsitewww.cavediv...
Pour un article plus général, voir Architecture des moteurs à pistons. Un moteur carré, est un moteur à explosion dont la course (le déplacement du piston) et l'alésage (le diamètre du piston) sont identiques. Le rapport entre l'alésage et la course est un paramètre important du comportement du moteur, et il y a trois catégories : Les moteurs carrés, c'est-à-dire ceux dont l'alésage et la course sont identiques. Les moteurs longue course, c'est-à-dire ceux pour lesquels l...
English professional golfer Stephen BennettPersonal informationBorn (1959-04-23) 23 April 1959 (age 65)Cleethorpes, Lincolnshire, EnglandHeight5 ft 10 in (1.78 m)Weight173 lb (78 kg; 12.4 st)Sporting nationality EnglandResidenceGrimsby, Lincolnshire, EnglandCareerTurned professional1979Former tour(s)European TourSafari CircuitEuropean Seniors TourProfessional wins2Number of wins by tourEuropean Tour1Other1Best results in major championshipsMasters Tourn...
Chinese automobile brand owned by Dongfeng Liuzhou Motor ForthingProduct typeAutomobile marqueOwnerDongfeng Liuzhou MotorCountryChinaIntroduced2001MarketsChinaSouth AmericaWebsitehttps://www.forthingmotor.com/ Chinese nameTraditional Chinese東風風行Simplified Chinese东风风行TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinDōngfēng Fēngxing Forthing (Dongfeng Fengxing) is an automobile marque owned by the Chinese automaker Dongfeng Liuzhou Motor, a division of Dongfeng Motor Group. T...
English footballer and manager For other people named Steve Watson, see Steve Watson (disambiguation). Steve Watson Watson as manager of York City in 2021Personal informationFull name Steven Craig Watson[1]Date of birth (1974-04-01) 1 April 1974 (age 50)[2]Place of birth North Shields, EnglandHeight 6 ft 1 in (1.85 m)[3]Position(s) Right-back, midfielder[1]Team informationCurrent team Darlington (manager)Youth career Wallsend Boys Club0000�...
Domenic PrioreBornDomenic PrioreJanuary 15th 1960 (1960-01-15) (age 64)Pasadena, California, United StatesOccupation Author popular music and culture historian documentary writer television producer EducationPasadena City CollegeGenreAmerican popular music, American popular cultureSubjectPsychedelia, counterculture of the 1960sNotable worksLook! Listen! Vibrate! Smile!, Smile: The Story of Brian Wilson's Lost Masterpiece, Riot on Sunset Strip: Rock 'n' Roll's Last Stand in Hollywood...
Ne doit pas être confondu avec turc ottoman. Turc ancien(adjectif : ancien-turc) Période VIIe – XIIIe siècles Pays Mongolie, Russie, Chine Région Sibérie, Mongolie-Extérieure, Gansu Typologie SOV Classification par famille - langues turciques - langues turques sibériennes - turc ancien Codes de langue ISO 639-3 oui Type historique Glottolog oldu1238 modifier Le turc ancien (en vieux turc : 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰:𐰜𐰇𐰛), ou encore parfois vieux turc, est une la...
Village and civil parish in Norfolk, England This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: North Elmham – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Human settlement in EnglandNorth ElmhamRemains on the site of a Saxon cathedralNorth ElmhamLocati...
Region in New South Wales, AustraliaFar WestNew South WalesFar WestCoordinates31°57′24″S 141°28′04″E / 31.95667°S 141.46778°E / -31.95667; 141.46778Population44,917 (2016 census)[Note 1] • Density0.305597/km2 (0.791493/sq mi)Area146,981 km2 (56,749.7 sq mi)LGA(s) City of Broken Hill Central Darling Shire Unincorporated Far West State electorate(s) Barwon MurrayFederal division(s) Parkes Farrer Localities around Far W...
Circle of AtonementPoster rilis teatrikalNama lainHangul비밀 Hanja秘密 Alih AksaraBimil Sutradara Park Eun-gyoung Lee Dong-ha Produser Jang So-jung Lee Haeng-bok Pemeran Sung Dong-il Son Ho-jun Kim Yoo-jung Penata musikChoi In-yeongSinematograferJeon Dae-sungPenyuntingSung Su-ahPerusahaanproduksiFilm DorothyDistributorCGV ArthouseTanggal rilis 15 Oktober 2015 (2015-10-15) (Korea Selatan) Durasi101 menit[1]NegaraKorea SelatanBahasaKorea Circle of Atonement (Han...
.jpg)
