The Archaic expansion differed from the Iron Age migrations of the Greek Dark Ages, in that it consisted of organised direction (see oikistes) away from the originating metropolis rather than the simplistic movement of tribes, which characterised the aforementioned earlier migrations. Many colonies, or apoikiai(Greek: ἀποικία, transl. "home away from home"), that were founded during this period eventually evolved into strong Greek city-states, functioning independently of their metropolis.
Motives
Illustration of an Archaic Greek ship on pottery, c. 520 BC
The reasons for the Greeks to establish colonies were strong economic growth with the consequent overpopulation of the motherland,[1] and that the land of these Greek city states could not support a large city. The areas that the Greeks would try to colonise were hospitable and fertile.[2]
Characteristics
The Argonautica, the myth thought to pertain to the bold nautical expeditions of this period
The founding of the colonies was consistently an organised enterprise by the metropolis (mother city), although in many cases it collaborated with other cities. The place to be colonised was selected in advance with the goal of offering business advantages, but also security from raiders. In order to create a feeling of security and confidence in the new colony, the choice of place was decided according to its usefulness.[3] The mission always included a leader nominated by the colonists. In the new cities, the colonists parceled out the land, including farms. The system of governance usually took a form similar to that of the metropolis.
Greek colonies were often established along coastlines, especially during the period of colonisation between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. Many Greek colonies were strategically positioned near coastlines to facilitate trade, communication, and access to maritime resources. These colonies played a crucial role in expanding Greek culture, trade networks, and influence throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. While some colonies were established inland for various reasons, coastal locations were generally more common due to the Greeks' strong connection to the sea.
At the end of the 8th century, Euboea fell into decline with the outbreak of the Lelantine War but colonial foundation continued by other Greeks such as the Ionians and Corinthians.[2] The Ionians started their first colonies around the 7th century in Southern Italy, Thrace and on the Black Sea. Thera founded Cyrene and Andros, and Samos founded multiple colonies in the Northern Aegean.[4]
Chalcidice was settled by Euboeans, chiefly from Chalcis, who lent their name to these colonies. The most important settlements of the Euboeans in Chalcidice were Olynthos (which was settled in collaboration with the Athenians), Torone, Mende, Sermyle, Aphytis and Cleonae in the peninsula of Athos. Other important colonies in Chalcidice were Acanthus, founded by colonists from Andros[5] and Potidaea, a colony of Corinth. Thasians with the help of the Athenian Callistratus of Aphidnae founded the city of Datus.
During the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians with the Hagnon, son of Nikias founded the city of Ennea Hodoi (Ἐννέα ὁδοὶ), meaning nine roads, at the current location of the "Hill 133" north of Amphipolis in Serres.[6]
Greeks began to settle in southern Italy in the 8th century BC.[10]
The first great migratory wave directed towards the western Mediterranean was that of the Euboeans aimed at the Gulf of Naples who, after Pithecusae (on the isle of Ischia), the oldest Greek settlement in Italy, founded Cumae nearby, their first colony on the mainland, and then in the Strait of Messina, Zancle in Sicily, and nearby on the opposite coast, Rhegium.[11]
In Sicily the Euboeans later founded Naxos, which became the base for the founding of the cities of Leontini, Tauromenion and Catania. They were accompanied by small numbers of Dorians and Ionians; the Athenians had notably refused to take part in the colonisation.[16] The strongest of the Sicilian colonies was Syracuse, an 8th-century BC colony of the Corinthians.
Evidence of frequent contact between the Greek settlers and the indigenous peoples comes from Timpone Della Motta which shows influence of Greek style in Oneotroian pottery.[17]
Many cities in the region became in turn metropoleis for new colonies such as the Syracusans, who founded the city of Camarina in the south of Sicily; or the Zancleans, who led the founding of the colony of Himera. Likewise, Naxos, which founded many colonies while Sybaris founded the colony of Poseidonia. Gela founded its own colony, Acragas.[18]
The region of the Ionian Sea and that of Illyria were colonised strictly by Corinth. The Corinthians founded important overseas colonies on the sea lanes to Southern Italy and the west which succeeded in making them the foremost emporia of the western side of the Mediterranean. Important colonies of Corinth included Leucada, Astacus, Anactoreum, Actium, Ambracia, and Corcyra - all in modern-day western Greece.
The Corinthians also founded important colonies in Illyria, which evolved into important cities, Apollonia and Epidamnus, in present-day Albania. The fact that about the 6th century BC the citizens of Epidamnus constructed a Doric-style treasury at Olympia confirms that the city was among the richest of the Ancient Greek world. An ancient account describes Epidamnos as 'a great power and very populated' city.[20]Nymphaeum was another Greek colony in Illyria.[21] The Abantes of Euboea founded the city of Thronion at the Illyria.[22]
Further west, colonists from the Greek city-state Paros in 385 BC founded the colony Pharos on the island of Hvar in the Adriatic, on the site of the present-day Stari Grad in Croatia.[4] In the early 4th century BC the Greek tyrant of Syracus Dionysius I founded the colony Issa on the modern-day island of Vis, and traders from Issa then went on to found emporia in Tragurion (Trogir) and Epetion (Stobreč) on the Illyrian mainland in 3rd century BC.
In 1877 a Greek inscription was discovered in Lumbarda on the eastern tip of the island of Korčula in modern-day Croatia which talks about the founding of another Greek settlement there in the 3rd or 4th century BC, by colonists from Issa. The artifact is known as Lumbarda Psephisma.[23] Evidence of coinage on the Illyrian coast used for trade between the Illyrians and the Greeks can be dated to around the 4th century BC and minted in Adriatic colonies such as Issa and Pharos.[24]
Greek colonies along the Black Sea, marked by their corresponding centuries
Although the Greeks had at one point called the Black Sea shore "inhospitable", according to ancient sources they eventually created 70 to 90 colonies.[25] The colonization of the Black Sea was led by the Megarans and some of the Ionian cities such as Miletus, Phocaea and Teos. The majority of colonies in the region of the Black Sea and Propontis were founded in the 7th century BC.
On the western shore of the Black Sea the Megarans founded the cities of Selymbria and a little later, Nesebar. A little farther north in today's Romania the Milesians founded the cities of Histria, Argame and Apollonia.
In the south of the Black Sea the most important colony was Sinope which according to prevailing opinion was founded by Miletus some time around the middle of the 7th century BC.[26] Sinope was founded with a series of other colonies in the Pontic region: Trebizond, Cerasus, Cytorus, Cotyora, Cromne, Pteria, Tium, etc.
Further north from the Danube delta the Greeks colonised the islet, probably then a peninsula, of Barythmenis (modern Berezan) which evolved into the colony of Borysthenes in the next century.
The second phase (6th c. BC)
The most important colony founded on the southern shore of the Black Sea was a Megaran and Boeotian foundation: Heraclea Pontica in 560-550 BC.[27]
On the north shore of the Black Sea Miletus was the first to start with Pontic Olbia and Panticapaeum (modern Kerch). In about 560 BC the Milesians founded Odessa in the region of modern Ukraine.[26] On the Crimean peninsula (the Greeks then called it Tauric Chersonese or "Peninsula of the Bulls") they founded likewise the cities of Sympheropolis, Nymphaeum and Hermonassa. On the Sea of Azov (Lake Maiotis to the ancients) they founded Tanais (in Rostov), Tyritace, Myrmeceum, Cecrine and Phanagoria, the last being a colony of the Teians.
On the eastern shore, which was known in ancient times as Colchis, today in Georgia and the autonomous region of Abkhazia, the Greeks founded the cities of Phasis and Dioscouris. The latter was called Sebastopolis by the Romans and Byzantines and is known today as Sukhumi.
Heraclea Pontica founded Callatis on the southern coast of Romania at the end of the 6th c. BC.[28]
Later Colonies
Only a few colonies were founded during the Greek Classical period which included Mesembria (modern Nessebar) by the Megareans in 493 BC.[29][30] Heraclea Pontica founded Chersonesus Taurica in Crimea at the end of the 5th or early 4th c. BC.
The ancient Greek settlement called Manitra of the 4th-3rd centuries BC near the town of Baherove in Crimea[31] was discovered in 2018.
Wider Mediterranean
Legendary Greek king Odysseus on the island of sirens; the Odyssey typifies the particulars of the age.
In North Africa, on the peninsula of Kyrenaika, colonists from Thera founded Kyrene, which evolved into a very powerful city in the region.[3] Other colonies in Kyrenaika later included Barca, Euesperides (modern Benghazi), Taucheira, and Apollonia.
By the middle of the 7th century, the lone Greek colony in Egypt had been founded, Naukratis.[32] The pharaohPsammitecus I gave a trade concession to Milesian merchants for one establishment on the banks of the Nile, founding a trading post which evolved into a prosperous city by the time of the Persian expedition to Egypt in 525 B.C.
2023 archaeological findings in Thonis-Heracleion at Egypt, suggested that Greeks, who were already allowed to trade in the city, "had started to take root" there as early as during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt and that likely Greek mercenaries were employed to defend the city.[33]
Similar to the emporion established in the Nile Delta it is possible there was a Greek trading colony established by the Euboians along the Syrian coast on the mouth of the Orontes river at the site Al-Mina in the early 8th century BC. The Greek colony of Posideion on the promontory Ras al-Bassit was colonised just to the south of the Orontes estuary later in the 7th century BC.[34]
On the north side of the Mediterranean, the Phokaians founded Massalia on the coast of Gaul. Massalia became the base for a series of further foundations farther away in the region of Spain. Phokaia also founded Alalia in Corsica and Olbia in Sardinia. The Phokaians arrived next on the coast of the Iberian peninsula. As related by Herodotus, a local king summoned the Phokaians to found a colony in the region and rendered meaningful aid in the fortification of the city. The Phokaians founded Empuries in this region and later the even more distant Hemeroskopeion.
List of Greek colonies before Alexander the Great (pre-336 BC)
* According to Herodotus, Geloni were originally Greeks who settle away from the coastal emporia among the Budini and their language evolved into half Greek and half Scythian.[67][68]Pavel Jozef Šafárik wrote that they might be Greeks among the Slavs and Fins (Μιξέλληνες - half Greeks half barbarians).[69]
Greek colonies of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea and their metropolitan cities depicted with red labels, while Phoenician colonies are depicted with yellow labels
^STEFANIA DE VIDO 'Capitani coraggiosi'. Gli Eubei nel Mediterraneo C. Bearzot, F. Landucci, in Tra il mare e il continente: l'isola d'Eubea (2013) ISBN 978-88-343-2634-3
^ abc*Demetriadou, Daphne (9 May 2003). "Αποικισμός του Εύξεινου Πόντου" [The Colonisation of the Black Sea]. Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Asia Minor. Translated by Kalogeropoulou, Georgia.
^Hind, J., “Megarian Colonization in the Western Half of the Black Sea: Sister‑ and Daughter‑Cities of Herakleia”, in Tsetskhladze, G.R. (ed.), The Greek Colonization of the Black Sea Area. Historical Interpretation of Archaeology, (Historia Einzelschriften 121) (Stuttgart 1998), pp. 135‑137
^Ewa Stanecka, Callatis as a Seaport, Studies in Ancient Art and Civilisation, 10.12797/SAAC.17.2013.17.28, 17, (325-333), (2013)
^Hind, J., “Megarian Colonization in the Western Half of the Black Sea: Sister‑ and Daughter‑Cities of Herakleia”, in Tsetskhladze, G.R. (ed.), The Greek Colonization of the Black Sea Area. Historical Interpretation of Archaeology (Historia Einzelschriften 121, Stuttgart 1998), pp. 137‑138.
^The editorial team (24 January 2009). "Gaza at the Crossroad of Civilisations: Two Contemporary Views". The Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation UK (FSTC UK). Retrieved 10 January 2024. Article references a book and an exhibition: Gerald Butt (1995), Life at the Crossroads: A History of Gaza, and "Gaza at the Crossroads of Civilizations" (2007) at the Musée d'art et d'histoire in Geneva.
^Sekerskaya, N. M. (2001). "Nikonion". In Tsetskhladze, Gocha R. (ed.). North Pontic Archaeology: Recent Discoveries and Studies. Colloquia Pontica. Vol. 6. Leiden: Brill. pp. 67–90. ISBN9789004120419.
Zuchtriegel, Gabriel (2020). Colonization and Subalternity in Classical Greece: Experience of the Nonelite Population. Cambridge University Press; Reprint edition. ISBN978-1108409223.
Lucas, Jason; Murray, Carrie Ann; Owen, Sara (2019). Greek Colonization in Local Context: Case Studies Exploring the Dynamics among Locals and Colonizers. University of Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology Monographs. Oxbow Books. ISBN978-1789251326.
Tsetskhladze, Gocha R.; Atasoy, Sümer; Temür, Akın; Yiğitpaşa, Davut (2019). Settlements and Necropoleis of the Black Sea and Its Hinterland in Antiquity: Select Papers from the Third International Conference 'The Black Sea in Antiquity and Tekkeköy: An Ancient Settlement on the Southern Black Sea Coast', 27-29 October 2017, Tekkeköy, Samsun. Archaeopress. doi:10.2307/j.ctvwh8bw7. S2CID241412939.
Irad, Malkin (2013). A Small Greek World: Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press; Reprint edition. ISBN978-0199315727.
Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2011). The Black Sea, Greece, Anatolia and Europe in the First Millennium BC. Peeters Publishers. ISBN978-9042923249.
Rhodes, P. J. (2010). A History of the Classical Greek World: 478 - 323 BC. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN978-1405192866.
Dietler, Michael; López-Ruiz, Carolina (2009). Colonial Encounters in Ancient Iberia: Phoenician, Greek, and Indigenous Relations. University Of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0226148472.
Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2006). Greek Colonisation: An Account Of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas: Volume 1. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN978-9004122048.
Kirigin, Branko (2006). Pharos. The Parian Settlement in Dalmatia: A study of a Greek colony in the Adriatic. British Archaeological Reports. ISBN978-1841719917.
Hall, Jonathan M. (2006). A History of the Archaic Greek World: ca. 1200-479 BCE. Wiley-Blackwel. ISBN978-0631226680.
Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2004). The Archaeology of Greek Colonisation: Essays Dedicated to Sir John Boardman. Oxford University School of Archaeology; 2nd Revised edition. ISBN978-0947816612.
Tsetskhladze, Gocha; Snodgrass, A. M. (2002). Greek Settlements in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea. British Archaeological Reports. ISBN978-1841714424.
Dominguez, Adolfo; Sanchez, Carmen (2001). Greek Pottery from the Iberian Peninsula: Archaic and Classical Periods. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN978-9004116047.
Boardman, John; Solovyov, Sergei; Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2001). Northern Pontic Antiquities in the State Hermitage Museum. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN978-9004121461.
Boardman, John (1999). The Greeks Overseas: Their Early Colonies and Trade. Thames & Hudson. ISBN978-0500281093.
Tsetskhladze, Gocha R. (1998). The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN978-3515073028.
Isaac, Benjamin H. (1997). The Greek Settlements in Thrace Until the Macedonian Conquest. Studies of the Dutch Archaeological and Historical Society, Vol 10. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN978-9004069213.
Treister, M Yu (1997). The Role of Metals in Ancient Greek History. Brill. ISBN978-9004104730.
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