In each case, the indeterminism is functioning as a hindrance or obstacle to her realizing one of her purposes—a hindrance or obstacle in the form of resistance within her will which has to be overcome by effort. 在每种情况下,不确定性作为她实现其目的的障碍或阻碍存在——一种以她的意志内部的阻力形式存在的障碍或阻碍,需要通过努力克服。
在量子力学(和物理不确定性)刚刚开始被接受时,C·S·路易斯在他的书《奇迹:初步研究(Miracles: A preliminary study)》中指出,如果物理世界被证明是不确定的,这将提供一个描述非物质实体对物质现实进行作用的切入点[9] 。物理非决定论模型(特别是涉及量子不确定性的模型)在原子或亚原子层面引入随机事件[10]。这些事件可能会影响大脑活动,并且如果某些心理过程(例如,主观控制感的意识意志)的表面不确定性与物理结构的基础不确定性相对应,似乎可以允许不兼容论的自由意志。然而,这种关系要求对概率具有因果作用,这是值得怀疑的,并且大脑活动是否能被这些事件影响还远未确定。其次,这些不兼容论模型依赖于行动与意识和意志之间的关系,正如自由意志神经科学所研究的那样。显然,观察可能会干扰观察本身的结果,使我们识别因果关系的能力受到限制[11]。如量子理论的主要奠基人之一尼尔斯·玻尔建议,自然的不确定性与自由意志之间不能建立任何联系。[12]
起因非决定论(Deliberative indeterminism)断言,不确定性仅局限于任何发展过程的早期阶段[30][31]。即存在一个不确定的初始选择集合,同时避免引入运气或随机决策等神秘要素。发展的过程是充满确定性的,尽管其可能基于由同一过程建立的早期偏好。就简单的解释而言,以人的行为举例,该观点认为在人的早期(比如童年时期),我们所作出的某些选择确实是具有不确定性或非决定性的,然而这一过程或逐渐随着人生的发展而趋向于决定性,这一过程可以被直观的理解为一个人的人格逐渐健全,之后这个人所作的决定均可归因于此人的人格所致。丹尼尔·丹尼特[32] 和约翰·马丁·费舍尔(英语:John Martin Fischer)[33]均曾提到过起因非决定论。对此观点的一个明显反对意见是,主体对其决策(或用于做出这些决策的偏好)的所有权不能比兼容主义模型更大。
意志努力理论(Efforts of Will Theory)与意志力在决策中的作用有关。其认为主体意志过程的不确定性可以映射到某些物理事件的不确定性上,而这些事件的结果因此可以被认为是由主体引起的。在其构建的意志模型中,意志被视为一种包含物理不确定性的复杂与深层次过程。一个例子是罗伯特·凯恩的假设:“在每种情况下,不确定性作为她实现其目的的障碍或阻碍存在——一种以她的意志内部的阻力形式存在的障碍或阻碍,需要通过努力克服。”根据罗伯特·凯恩,这种“最终责任(Ultimate Responsbility)”是自由意志的必要条件[8][41]。这种理论的一个重要因素是,主体的心灵事件不能被还原为物理的神经事件,而是心理过程被认为与物理过程同样有效地决定结果(参见非还原物理主义(英语:non-reductive physicalism)),与该观点类似但不完全相同的观点可以在笛卡尔的经典二元论以及副现象论中被找到。
Clarke, Randolph (2003). Libertarian Accounts of Free Will. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-515987-X.
Kane, Robert (1998). The Significance of Free Will. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-512656-4.
参考文献
^Strawson, Galen (1998, 2004). Free will互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期2007-08-25.. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved July 31, 2009
^Strawson, Galen (1998, 2004). Free will (section 2)互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期2009-09-23.. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved July 31, 2009. "These anti-compatibilists or incompatibilists divide into two groups: the libertarians and the no-freedom theorists or pessimists about free will and moral responsibility."
^Timpe, Kevin (2006) Free Will互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期2009-05-08. in Feiser, J and Dowden, B (Eds.) 'Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'. Retrieved on July 31, 2009 "Other incompatibilists think that the actual world is not deterministic and that at least some of the agents in the actual world have free will. These incompatibilists are referred to as "libertarians" [see Kane (2005), particularly chapters 3 and 4]."
^Strawson, Galen (1998, 2004). Free will (section 2)互联网档案馆的存檔,存档日期2009-09-23.. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved July 31, 2009. "[Libertarians] hold (1) that we do have free will, (2) that free will is incompatible with determinism, and (3) that determinism is therefore false."
^ 8.08.1Kane, Robert; John Martin Fischer; Derk Pereboom; Manuel Vargas. Four Views on Free Will (Libertarianism). Oxford UK: Blackwell Publishing. 2007: 39. ISBN 978-1-4051-3486-6.
^Kane, Robert. Libertarianism. Four Views on Free Will (Great Debates in Philosophy). Wiley-Blackwell. 2007: 9. ISBN 978-1405134866. It would seem that undetermined events in the brain or body would occur spontaneously and would be more likely to undermine our freedom rather than enhance it.
^Niels Bohr. Light and Life. Nature. April 1, 1933, 131 (3309): 457–459 [July 8, 2017]. Bibcode:1933Natur.131..457B. ISBN 9780444899729. doi:10.1038/131457a0. (原始内容存档于February 8, 2024). For instance, it is impossible, from our standpoint, to attach an unambiguous meaning to the view sometimes expressed that the probability of the occurrence of certain atomic processes in the body might be under the direct influence of the will. In fact, according to the generalized interpretation of the psycho-physical parallelism, the freedom of the will must be considered a feature of conscious life that corresponds to functions of the organism that not only evade a causal mechanical description, but resist even a physical analysis carried to the extent required for an unambiguous application of the statistical laws of atomic mechanics. Without entering into metaphysical speculations, I may perhaps add that an analysis of the very concept of explanation would, naturally, begin and end with a renunciation as to explaining our own conscious activity. Full text on line at us.archive.org.
^Randolph Clarke. Agent Causation and Event Causation in the Production of Free Action. Philosophical Topics. 1996, 24 (2): 19–48. doi:10.5840/philtopics19962427.
^L. Peterson, Michael; Fischer, John Martin. Libertarianism and Avoidability: A Reply to Widerker. Faith and Philosophy. 1995, 12: 119–125. ISSN 0739-7046. doi:10.5840/faithphil199512123.