東林黨爭

東林黨爭是指明朝晚期東林黨非東林黨之間的争斗。[1]東林黨是明末以江南士大夫為主的政治集團。在東林黨之外,還有浙党、齐党、楚党、昆党、宣党等,統稱為非東林黨,東林黨爭幾乎是東林黨與全國非東林黨集团之爭。

東林黨簡介

從萬曆時代的國本之爭妖書案明末三案京察之爭,就有東林黨爭的影子。萬曆三十二年(1604年),吏部郎中無錫顧憲成因為得罪了皇帝而被罷官,他與高攀龍錢一本等在宋代楊中立主講的無錫東林書院,開始講學,提倡「知輔行主」、「崇實黜虛」、「學問不貴空談,而貴實行」、「學問必須躬行實踐方有益」等,而「講習之餘,往往諷議朝政,裁量人物」,常常和書院中人議論朝政,抨擊宦官。他們漸漸形成了一個在野集團,被稱為「東林黨」。《明史·孙丕扬传》说:“南北言官群击李三才王元翰,连及里居顾宪成,谓之‘东林党’。”他們主張開放言路、實行改良時政等意見,得到廣泛支持,同時遭到朝臣、宦官的激烈反對。同時期的浙江寧波沈一貫糾集在京的浙江籍官僚,結成東林黨的反對派,被稱作“浙黨”。以湖北官應震吳亮嗣為主的“楚黨”,和山東亓诗教的“齊黨”皆依附於浙黨。其它以地緣關係結成的黨派還有‘宣黨’和‘崑黨’,這些合稱“齊楚浙黨”。齊楚浙黨與東林黨相互攻擊,甚至禍及邊疆軍事,是為“東林黨爭”。

黨爭綿延數十年,幾無寧日。《王學質疑》提要說:“夫明之亡,亡於門戶;門戶始於朋黨;朋黨始於講學。”夏允彝《幸存录》在「门户大略」说:“自万历以前,未有党名,及四明(沈一贯)为,以才自许,不为人下,而一时贤者如顾宪成孙丕扬邹元标赵南星之流,蹇谔自负,每相持。附四明者,言路亦有人。而宪成讲学于东林,名流咸乐于趋之,此东林、浙党所自始也。”《弘光朝偽東宮偽後及黨禍紀略》亦載:“黨禍始於萬曆間,浙人沈一貫為相,擅權自恣,多置私人於要路;而一時賢者如顧憲成、高攀龍、孫丕揚、鄒元標、趙南星之屬,氣節自許,每與政府相持。而高、顧講學於東林,名流咸樂附之,此東林黨禍所自始也。”

黨爭起源:京察之爭

1593年4月(萬曆二十一年三月)由吏部尚書孫鑨、左都御史李世達和考功司郎中趙南星主持的癸巳京察,臣僚乘机徇私毁誉,结援同党,有大批的大臣被罢免,吏部文选郎吕胤昌、给事中王三余,均被斥黜,引起轩然大波。事後言官又劾论吏部稽勋司员外郎虞淳熙、兵部职方郎中楊于庭、主事袁黄袁了凡)。[2]

1605年(萬曆三十三年)東林黨人楊時喬左都御史温纯主持乙巳京察,距癸巳已十二年,期間爆發了“楚太子案”,形成沈一贯沈鲤兩大集團的鬥爭,沈鲤藉機貶謫浙黨官員给事中錢夢皐钟兆斗及御史张似渠于永清,沈一贯則称病闭门家居,最後内阁只剩朱赓一人,叶向高曾說“廊庙空虚一也;上下否隔二也;士大夫好胜喜争,三也;多藏厚积必有悖出之釁,四也;凤声气习日趋日下莫可挽回,五也”。[3]

1611年(万历三十九年)辛亥京察,由年届八十的吏部尚书孙丕扬主持,徐绍吉周永春等策划倾覆东林,被吏部右侍郎王图制止。這時期朝廷的黨爭形成南党和北党之爭,互相攻击,京畿道御史徐兆魁说:“东林所至,倾动一时,能使南北交攻,角胜党附”[4]。日後阁部大臣,长久缺员,萬曆帝亦置之不理,《资治通鉴三编發明》说:“楚宗事至是几十年矣,而廷臣犹以世卿右王之故,相继论劾,借端攻击,报复相寻,朝事已不可问”。叶向高先后上疏百余次,力陈:“今自阁臣九卿台省,曹署皆空,南都九卿亦只存其二”,“陛下万事不理,以为天下长如此,臣恐祸端一发不可收也”。吏部尚书孙丕扬曾推荐沈鲤、郭正域、顾宪成、赵南星、高攀龙等,神宗一概不理。

1617年(萬曆四十五年)浙黨吏部尚书郑继之主持丁巳京察,是神宗朝最后一次京察,齐(亓诗教、周永春)、楚(官应震、吴亮嗣)、浙(姚允文、刘廷元)三党大肆斥逐東林黨人。至此朋党之争,愈演愈烈。

1620年(泰昌元年)的移宮案中,楊漣左光斗等東林黨人擁立太子朱由校繼位有功,趙南星高攀龍顧大章夏嘉遇周宗建等重新啟用。1623年(天啟三年)東林黨人主京察,又逐齊楚浙黨,明末考核京官的制度成為黨爭的工具。明末國子監祭酒倪元璐说:“其始天子静摄,听臣工群类之自战而不为之理,所谓鼠鬥穴中,将勇者胜耳。故其时其血玄黄,时胜时败”[5]

1623年(天啟三年)京察,趙南星掌吏部,力斥浙黨、齊黨、楚黨等三黨官員亓詩教、趙興邦、官應震吳亮嗣等“先朝結黨亂政”,議當罷黜。

東林黨獄

明熹宗時,政治極度腐敗,東廠提督宦官魏忠賢,獨攬大權,但是因魏忠賢受到東林黨人的排斥,只好結合了齊、楚、浙黨等失意的士大夫,組成閹黨,因為反對者甚夥,忠賢施行恐怖統治,他控制廠衛特務機構,爪牙遍及各地,實行血腥鎮壓。他又拆毀全國書院,許多東林人物被迫害,朝野忠良盡去,邊防將帥或貶或死,如熊廷弼被下狱问斩,不只是因為辽东失守,也是由於魏忠賢的陷害,最後以“坐贓行賄”罪遇害。天启六年,魏忠贤又逼死了高攀龍、杀害了周宗建黃尊素李应升東林七君子,东林书院被全部拆毁,讲学亦告中止。东林党在北京朝廷中显露了的势力幾被消灭殆盡,時東林“纍纍相接,駢首就誅”,但东林党根基深厚,势力仍在,并且东林党南方的力量幾乎未被触动,这也是日后崇祯登基后东林党反扑的力量来源。

明思宗繼位後,對東林黨的迫害才告停止,東林黨在崇禎初年暫時抬頭,但明思宗又說:“朕御極之初,撤還內鎮,舉天下大事悉以委大小臣工,比者多營私圖,罔恤民艱,廉謹者又迂疏無通。”在斬殺袁崇煥後,東林黨的聲勢又告衰落。[6]皇帝最後只能信任宦官,閹黨勢力復起。

東林諸君子大都知直不知曲,對個人聲名之看重甚于國家利益,爭意氣而不爭是非,君臣之間尤喜意氣用事,明神宗則因為立儲一事與大臣反復較量,號稱國本之爭,最終雖屈服於眾意,竟置宗廟社稷于不顧,深居後宮,不上朝理政達三十年之久。黃宗羲《明儒學案》說:“天下君子以清議歸於東林,廟堂亦有畏忌。”“東林中亦多敗類,及攻東林者,亦間有清操之人。”“方東林勢盛,羅天下清流,士有落然自異者,詬誶隨之矣。”凡不合東林人士法眼者,就被視為小人,齊、楚、浙黨不一定心服閹黨,但一時走投無路,大多投靠魏忠賢門下。魏忠賢的助手魏廣微之父魏見泉生前和趙南星顧憲成是好友。魏廣微當了大學士後,以子侄輩的禮數三次登門拜訪,但趙南星卻因為魏廣微與魏忠賢有交情,絕不與通,更逢人便說“見泉無子”,以羞辱魏廣微。於是廣微深恨不已,慫恿忠賢鎮壓東林黨人。近人高陽批評趙南星“正氣可敬,卻微嫌剛愎,行事直道而行,不說後果,因而把一些游離分子都逼到閹黨那面”。美国学者贺凯(Charles O.Hucker)在《明末的东林运动》一文说:“明末东林运动的失败,代表传统儒家价值观念与现实恶劣政治势力斗争的一个典型,他们是一支重整道德的十字军,但不是一个政治改革的士大夫团体。”

南明時期

東林黨與閹黨之爭,一直延續到南明;閹黨的阮大鋮打擊東林黨人向來不遺餘力,本來阮大鋮和東林諸君子關係不錯,但受到趙南星的打壓,最後乾脆倒向閹黨。當時東林黨人因為與國本之爭時,與福王朱由崧的先人朱常洵有過節,力主擁立潞王朱常淓,所以史可法寫信給馬士英說明福王朱由崧「七不可立」,馬士英卻搶先擁立福王。史可法在東林黨與閹黨之間兩難。傳奇桃花扇》記載阮大鋮刻意逢迎復社吳應箕沈昆銅沈眉生等人,結果反被責打一頓,後來阮成為南明重臣,立刻展開報復行動。

永曆朝又有所谓吳楚黨争,是瞿式耜與广东军阀李成栋、广西军阀庆国公陈邦傅之間的鬥爭,楚党的幕后人物为瞿式耜和李元胤袁彭年丁时魁蒙正發。吴党有堵胤锡、陈邦傅、王化澄朱天麟。堵胤锡等人主张联合原大顺军和大西军。何腾蛟、瞿式耜則排斥農民軍。吳、楚黨爭使得南明與大順軍大西軍的戰力始終無法整合,最後亡於清軍之手。

南北黨爭

甚至是到了初都還有明末黨爭的陰影,如順治時期馮铨陳名夏的北黨與南黨之爭,馮铨原是依附魏忠賢的閹黨,而陳名夏是東林黨之後。清初大量引用明朝旧宦,明末党争的弊端在清初政局立即反映,顺治二年(1645年)七月,浙江御史吴达上疏弹劾阉党余孽冯铨及其党羽孙之獬等,给事中许作梅莊宪祖等纷纷上疏支持吴达。多尔衮最初未表态,终于决定支持冯铨一派,公開申斥龚鼎孳,並将李森先革职。孙之獬也被革职,永不叙用。

康熙時,黨爭與满族權貴内部矛盾纠缠在一起,康熙時期的朋黨主要有鼇拜黨、明珠黨、索額圖黨、皇子黨等。康熙帝深知黨爭之害,但鑑於滿之間的矛盾,卻也不加以整頓,他與滿人贵族談話總稱漢人官員為“蠻子”,甚至罵道:“蠻子那(哪)有一個好人!”[7]「但謂明之亡、亡于太監,則朕殊不以為然。明末朋黨紛爭,在廷諸臣置封疆社稷於度外,惟以門戶勝負為念,不待智者,知其必亡。」[8][9]

注釋

  1. ^ 《明史》卷一一七,《赵用贤传》
  2. ^ 蔣平階,《東林始末》。
  3. ^ 《明史·叶向高传》
  4. ^ 《国榷》卷八十一
  5. ^ 《明史纪事本末》卷六十六
  6. ^ 閻崇年,《明亡清興六十年》
  7. ^ 李光地:《榕村續語錄》“本朝時事”
  8. ^ 《清康熙朝實錄》卷154 康熙三十一年壬申春正月己卯 第二条. “己卯...谕修《明史》诸臣、朕自冲龄、即在宫中、披览经史、《明实录》、曾阅数过。见其间立言过当、纪载失实者甚多,纂修《明史》、宜加详酌。如弘治中、太后思念崇王,欲令入朝,此亦情理之常,且所封之地、初不甚远,而一时大臣及科道官员交章争执、以为不可至,云人民骚扰、国势动摇时,已有上□日召崇王矣、竟因人言而止书言、以亲九族、九族既睦,若藩王就封,必不可召见、则自古帝王所云睦族之道谓何。又《正德实录》、载午朝罢后、于御道得匿名文簿一卷,传上□日诘问、百官皆跪于丹墀、时仆而暴死者数人、暍而病者尤众。夏月虽天时炎热,何至人多暴卒,且行间将士、每披坚执锐、戮力于烈日之中,未闻因暑而致死。岂朝堂之上,病暍若斯之甚耶?!所云尽信书、不如无书、此之谓矣。至于官为害、历代有之,明如王振刘瑾魏忠贤辈、负罪尤甚。崇祯之诛锄阉党、极为善政,但谓明之亡、亡于太监、则朕殊不以为然。明末朋党纷争、在廷诸臣、置封疆社稷于度外、惟以门户胜负为念、不待智者、知其必亡。乃以国祚之颠覆、尽委罪于太监、谓由中官用事之故、乌得为笃论耶!朕宫中所用太监、止令供洒扫奔走之役,一频一笑、从不假借,所以数十年以来、太监皆极贫乏、有不能自给者,尔诸臣想亦悉知。朕非信用太监之主、惟朕可为此言。作史之道、务在秉公持平,不应胶执私见,为一偏之论。今特与诸臣言之、宜共知此意。”
  9. ^ 《清康熙朝實錄》卷153 康熙三十年十一月己未条. “己未。谕吏部、从来致治之道、在正人心。人心偏私则诈伪日生、而习俗滋敝;人心公直则嚣竞自息、而庶绩允厘。朕蚤夜孜孜崇尚德教,蠲涤烦苛,期与中外臣民、共适于宽大和平之治。凡大小诸臣、素经拔擢、咸思恩礼下逮、曲全始终。即或因事放归、或罹咎罢斥,仍令各安田里、乐业遂生,惟尔诸臣亦宜奉职恪共、绝偏私而襄国事。乃近见内外各官、间有彼此倾轧、伐异党同,私怨交寻,牵连报复,或已所衔恨而反嘱人代纠、阴为主使。或意所欲言、而不直指其事、巧陷术中,虽业已解职投闲、仍复吹求不止,株连逮于子弟,颠覆及于身家,甚且市井奸民、亦得借端凌侮,蔑纪伤化,不可胜言。凡若所行、虽迹甚诡秘、朕总揽机务已三十年,此等情态,知之最悉,傥因仍陋习、益致蔓延、殊非朝廷所以体恤臣工、保全爱惜之意。夫谗谮媢嫉之害、历代皆有,而明末为甚,公家之事置若罔闻、而分树党援、飞诬排陷、迄无虚日,以致酿祸既久、上延国家。朕历观前史、于此等背公误国之人、深切痛恨。自今以往、内外大小诸臣、应仰体朕怀,各端心术,尽蠲私忿、共矢公忠。岂独国事有裨、即尔诸臣、亦获身名俱泰。倘仍执迷不悟、复踵前非,朕将穷极根株、悉坐以交结朋党之罪。尔部可即传示中外、使咸知朕意。”

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Wittenburg Lambang kebesaranLetak Wittenburg di Ludwigslust-Parchim NegaraJermanNegara bagianMecklenburg-VorpommernKreisLudwigslust-ParchimMunicipal assoc.Wittenburg Didirikan1230Pemerintahan • MayorNorbert HebinckLuas • Total80,00 km2 (3,000 sq mi)Ketinggian40 m (130 ft)Populasi (2013-12-31)[1] • Total5.046 • Kepadatan0,63/km2 (1,6/sq mi)Zona waktuWET/WMPET (UTC+1/+2)Kode pos19243Kode area telepon03885...

 

Class of cements, mechanically processed to transform reactivity An EMC made from volcanic rocks (Luleå, Sweden, 2020) Energetically modified cements (EMCs) are a class of cements made from pozzolans (e.g. fly ash, volcanic ash, pozzolana), silica sand, blast furnace slag, or Portland cement (or blends of these ingredients).[1] The term energetically modified arises by virtue of the mechanochemistry process applied to the raw material, more accurately classified as high energy ball m...

ButterfieldCompany typePublicTraded asBSX: NTB.BHFounded1858HeadquartersHamilton, BermudaArea servedBahamas, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Guernsey, Switzerland, United KingdomProductsbanking Butterfield, officially The Bank of N. T. Butterfield & Son Limited, is a bank founded and based in Bermuda. It provides services to clients from Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Guernsey and Jersey, where its principal banking operations are located, and The Bahamas, Switzerland, Singapore and the Unite...

 

Former upper house of the Swedish Riksdag (1866–1970) First Chamber Första kammarenCoat of arms of SwedenTypeTypeUpper house HistoryEstablished22 June 1866Disbanded20 September 1970Meeting placeOld Parliament House, Stockholm The Första kammaren (literally First Chamber, often abbreviated 'FK') was the upper house of the bicameral Riksdag of Sweden between 1866 and 1970 that replaced the Riksdag of the Estates.[1] During the bicameral period, the lower house of the Riksdag was the...

 

Borough in Estonia This article is about the small borough in Kohila Parish, Rapla County. For the village in the same parish, see Hageri (village). Small borough in Rapla County, EstoniaHageriSmall boroughChurch in Hageri villageHageriLocation in EstoniaCoordinates: 59°09′34″N 24°39′03″E / 59.15944°N 24.65083°E / 59.15944; 24.65083Country EstoniaCounty Rapla CountyMunicipality Kohila ParishGovernment • Village elderEsne ErnitsArea • ...

Town in Western AustraliaExmouthWestern AustraliaMain park c. 2007Coordinates21°55′59″S 114°7′41″E / 21.93306°S 114.12806°E / -21.93306; 114.12806Population2,806 (SAL 2021)[1][2]Established1964Postcode(s)6707Elevation15 m (49 ft)Area50.7 km2 (19.6 sq mi)Location 1,264 km (785 mi) N of Perth 539 km (335 mi) SW of Karratha 366 km (227 mi) N of Carnarvon LGA(s)Shire of ExmouthState elector...

 

South Korean singer (1958–1990) In this Korean name, the family name is Kim. Kim Hyun-sik김현식Born(1958-01-07)7 January 1958Seoul, South KoreaDied1 November 1990(1990-11-01) (aged 32)Seoul, South KoreaNationalitySouth KoreanOccupationsSingersongwriterMusical careerGenresFolk rockpop rockblues rockInstrument(s)VocalsguitarharmonicaYears active1980−1990 Musical artistKorean nameHangul김현식Hanja金賢植Revised RomanizationGim Hyeon-sikMcCune–ReischauerKim Hyŏnsik Kim Hyun-si...

 

贝内德托·贝蒂诺·克拉克西Bettino Craxi第45任意大利总理任期1983年8月4日—1987年4月17日总统亚历山德罗·佩尔蒂尼 弗朗切斯科·科西加副职阿纳尔多·福拉尼前任阿明托雷·范范尼继任阿明托雷·范范尼 个人资料出生(1934-02-24)1934年2月24日伦巴第米兰逝世2000年1月19日(2000歲—01—19)(65歲)突尼斯哈马麦特国籍意大利政党意大利社会党儿女Bobo、Stefania 克拉克西在突尼斯的墓地。 �...

Her Majesty's Government of Western AustraliaCoat of arms of Western Australiaمعلومات عامةالبلد  Australiaالاختصاص أستراليا الغربية نظام الحكم State Governmentالهيئات الفرعية Department of Commerce (en) [1]Tourism Western Australia (en) Head of state (sovereign) Monarch (Queen)رئيس الحكومة Premierالتكوين 21-10-1890المدة 133 سنةً و7 أشهرٍ ويومًا واحدًاالمقر الرئ...

 

Stub sorting This template is maintained by WikiProject Stub sorting, an attempt to bring some sort of order to Wikipedia. If you would like to participate, you can choose to improve/expand the articles containing this stub notice, or visit the project page, where you can join the project and see a list of open tasks.Stub sortingWikipedia:WikiProject Stub sortingTemplate:WikiProject Stub sortingStub sorting articles Japan Template‑class Japan portalThis template is within the scope of WikiP...

 

Secondary school in Altens, Aberdeen, ScotlandLochside AcademyThe exterior of the school in March 2020.AddressWellington CircleAltens, Aberdeen, AB12 3JGScotlandCoordinates57°06′41″N 2°05′58″W / 57.1113°N 2.0994°W / 57.1113; -2.0994InformationTypeSecondary schoolEstablishedAugust 23, 2018 (2018-08-23)Local authorityAberdeen City CouncilHead teacherJustin NoonStaff103GenderCo-educationalAge11 to 18Number of pupils1,580Capacity1,350Colour(...

Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi Giardino (disambigua). Disambiguazione – Giardini rimanda qui. Se stai cercando luoghi o persone di nome Giardini, vedi Giardini (disambigua). I giardini reali della Reggia di Caserta, Italia. Il giardino di Villa Rufolo a Ravello in costiera amalfitana Un giardino di Bayahibe nella Repubblica Dominicana Il giardino è uno spazio progettato, di solito all'aperto, riservato alla vista, alla coltivazione botanica e al godim...

 

Sheet music publisher This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article needs additional cita...

 

Flag carrier of Thailand Thai Airways redirects here. For the defunct regional airline, see Thai Airways Company. Thai Airways International plcบริษัท การบินไทย จำกัด (มหาชน) IATA ICAO Callsign TG THA THAI Founded29 March 1960; 64 years ago (1960-03-29)(as Thai International)Commenced operations1 April 1988; 36 years ago (1988-04-01)(merger with Thai Airways Company)AOC #AOC.0003[1]HubsBangkok�...

The BRT Kota Kinabalu is a bus rapid transit (BRT) project to improve bus services in the city of Kota Kinabalu.[1][2][3][4] An allocation of around MYR1 billion has been provided by the Malaysian government under the 2016 Malaysian Budget to implement the project.[5][6] Currently, the project is under studies between the federal and state governments and it was predicted to be finished in 2020.[7][8] It has also been lauded by ...

 

American politician and attorney Aisha BraveboyBraveboy in 2024Prince George's County State's AttorneyIncumbentAssumed office January 7, 2019Interim: December 3, 2018 – January 7, 2019Preceded byAngela AlsobrooksMember of the Maryland House of Delegatesfrom the 25th districtIn officeJanuary 10, 2007 – January 14, 2015Preceded byAnthony BrownSucceeded byAngela AngelDarryl Barnes Personal detailsBorn (1974-07-29) July 29, 1974 (age 50)Washington, D.C., U.S.Poli...