They speak Sylheti, an eastern Indo-Aryan language that is considered "a distinct language by many and a dialect of Bengali by some others".[14] Sylheti identity is associated primarily with its regional culture and language, alongside a broader cultural and
ethnic Bengali identity.[15][9]
Sylheti culture, while considered a subculture of Bengali culture,[16][17] is distinguished by unique linguistic, historical, and regional characteristics.[18] The Sylheti language, which some consider as a dialect of Bengali,[19] while many linguists consider it as a distinct language,[20] is central to Sylheti identity.[21][22] Its unique phonetic qualities and vocabulary often make it unintelligible to standard Bengali speakers, which contributes to a sense of separateness among Sylhetis.[23][24] In addition, Sylhetis have a strong regional identity that was strengthened by the historical shifts of the Sylhet region between Assam and Bengal during British rule.[25][18] These transitions were pivotal in developing a distinct Sylheti identity, due to the region’s geographical isolation and its historical and cultural ties with Bengal.[26][27] Many Sylhetis today continue to identify with both the broader Bengali and their distinct Sylheti ethnocultural identities.[28][29][30]
Front page of a Sylheti Nagari book titled Halat-un-Nabi, written in the mid-19th century by Sadeq Ali
A distinct linguistic register emerged in the Sylhet region through the development of the Sylheti Nagri script. Though having similar features to the more prevalent Dobhashi literary dialect of Middle Bengali, the Sylheti Nagri script fostered a unique literary culture of the Sylhet region.[32] Its distinction is marked with its simpler script which is related to the Kaithi script, and its phonology being deeply influenced by the Sylheti vernacular.[33] Its most renowned writer was Sadeq Ali whose Halatunnabi was famed as household item among rural Muslim communities.[34][35] Manuscripts have been found of works such as Rag Namah by Fazil Nasim Muhammad, Shonabhaner Puthi by Abdul Karim, and the earliest known work Talib Huson (1549) by Gholam Huson.[36] Late Nagri writers include Muhammad Haidar Chaudhuri who wrote Ahwal-i-Zamana in 1907 and Muhammad Abdul Latif who wrote Pohela Kitab o Doikhurar Rag in 1930.[37] From around the middle of 20th century, Sylheti Nagri had faced near-extinction as most Sylheti Nagri printing presses fell out of use or were destroyed during the Bangladeshi Liberation War in 1971.[38] Recently there have been efforts in reviving the script, including from the British Bangladeshi diaspora, as the script is viewed as a unique cultural marker that distinguishes Sylheti from Bengali identity.[39]
Bengali
It has been argued that the first Bengali translation of the Mahabharata was written by Sri Sanjay of Sylhet in the 17th century.[40][41] The 18th-century Hattanather Panchali (Hattanath chronicles) written by Ganesh Ram Shiromani was a Bengali ballad of 36,000 lines which detail the early history of Sylhet though its authenticity is questionable.[34] When Sylhet was under the rule of the Twipra Kingdom, medieval Sylheti writers using the Bengali script included the likes of Dwija Pashupati, the author of Chandravali – considered one of the earliest Sylheti works.[42] Nasiruddin Haydar of Sylhet town wrote the Tawarikh-e-Jalali, the first Bengali biography of Shah Jalal. Gobind Gosai of Masulia wrote Nirbban Shongit, Gopinath Dutta wrote Dronporbbo, Dotto Bongshaboli and Nariporbbo and Nur Ali Khan of Syedpur wrote Marifoti Geet. Songwriters and poets such as Radharaman Dutta, Hason Raja and Shah Abdul Karim, significantly contributed to Bengali literature and their works remain popular across Bengal in present-times.[43] Numerous Bengali writers emerged in Ita, such as Kobi Muzaffar Khan, Gauri Shankar Bhatta and Golok Chand Ghosh. Muslim literature was based upon historical affairs and biographies of prominent Islamic figures.
Sylhetis have contributed to Sanskrit literature throughout history. In the 15th century, Jagadish Tarkalankar wrote several Sanskrit books, many of which were made up of numerous volumes. Tarlankar's Shabdashaktiprakashika was a famous textbook for Sanskrit learners. His contemporary, Advaita Acharya of Laur, wrote two medieval Sanskrit books, Yogabashishta-Bhaishta and Geeta Bhaishya.[45] In the 16th century, Murari Gupta wrote the first Sanskrit biography of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and Raghunath Shiromani wrote 40 books in Sanskrit.[46][47] Some works written by Sylhetis have also been translated into other languages. For example, Ashraf Hussain's Manipurer Ladai was translated into English by Dinesh Chandra Sen and included in the Eastern Bengal Ballads.[48][41]
Sylhet, in particular the Taraf, was also an esteemed centre for the study of Persian, an official language up until the British period, due to the high population of foreign missionaries from Central Asia and Persia following the Conquest of Sylhet. Ma'dan al-Fawaid was written in 1534 by Syed Shah Israil who is considered to be Sylhet's first author.[49] Other prominent writers include Muhammad Arshad, Syed Rayhan ad-Din and Syed Pir Badshah.[50][51] Reyazuddin of Taraf wrote a Persian book on "Dream Fruit".[52] Ala Bakhsh Mazumdar Hamed was known to have written Tuhfatul Muhsineen and Diwan-i-Hamed. Collectively, the works of these two people belonging to the Mazumdar family of Sylhet, are regarded among the most creative literary works in the Sylhet region. Majid Bakht Mazumdar wrote an English book on the family history.[53]
In the 19th century, Urdu had a somewhat aristocratic background in Sylhet and notable families that spoke it included the Nawabs of Longla and the Mazumdars of Sylhet. Moulvi Hamid Bakht Mazumdar, who was also fluent in Persian, wrote the Urdu prose Ain-i-Hind, a history of the Indian subcontinent.[34] Literature written in this period included Nazir Muhammad Abdullah Ashufta's Tanbeeh al-Ghafileen, written in 1894, and the poems of Moulvi Farzam Ali Bekhud of Baniachong. Hakim Ashraf Ali Mast and Fida Sylheti were prominent Urdu poets of Sylhet in the 19th century, the latter being a disciple of Agha Ahmad Ali.[54] In 1946, the Anjuman-i Taraqqi-i Urdu performed a mushaira in Sylhet attracting the likes of Hafeez Jalandhari, the lyricist of the National Anthem of Pakistan.[55]
Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement Act of Bengal in 1793 and it altered the social, political and economic landscape of the Sylhet region; socioeconomic ramification for former landlords was severe as the land changed hands. On juxtapose, colonial administration opened new windows of opportunities for young men, who sought employment merchant ship companies. Young men from Sylhet boarded ships primarily at Kolkata, Mumbai and Singapore. Many Sylheti people believed that seafaring was a historical and cultural inheritance due to a large proportion of Sylheti Muslims being descended from foreign traders, lascars and businessman from the Middle East and Central Asia who migrated to the Sylhet region before and after the Conquest of Sylhet.[56] Kasa Miah, who was a Sylheti migrant, claimed this was a very encouraging factor for Sylhetis to travel to Calcutta aiming to eventually reach the United States and United Kingdom.[57]
Barak Valley
The Sylheti community in the Barak Valley, contiguous to Sylhet, is one of the eminent diasporic communities where they have been able to recreate the Sylhet environ.[4] The Barak Valley consists of three districts in the Indian state of Assam, which are home to a Bengali-speaking majority population as opposed to Assamese.[58] Geographically the region is surrounded by hills from all three sides except its western plain boundary with Bangladesh. Though never a part of Sylhet the Barak Valley hosts the presence of the same Sylheti dialect. Niharranjan Ray, author of Bangalir Itihash, claims that "South Assam / Northeastern Bengal or Barak Valley is the extension of the Greater Surma/Meghna Valley of Bengal in every aspect from culture to geography".[59]
A movement emerged in the 1960s in this Sylheti-majority area of India. Referred to as the Bengali Language Movement of the Barak Valley, Sylhetis protested against the decision of the Government of Assam to make Assamese the only sole official language of the state knowing full well that 80% of the Barak Valley people are Bengalis. The main incident took place on 19 May 1961 at Silchar railway station in which 11 Sylheti-Bengalis were killed by the Assamese police. Sachindra Chandra Pal and Kamala Bhattacharya were two notable Sylheti students murdered by the Assam Rifles during the movement.
Outside South Asia
Today, the Sylheti diaspora numbers around one million, mainly concentrated in the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Germany, Italy, France, Australia, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Finland and the Middle East and other European countries. However, a 2008 study showed that 95% of Sylheti diaspora live in the UK.[60] In the United States, most Sylhetis live in New York City, though sizeable populations also live in Atlanta, Houston, Dallas, Los Angeles, Miami, and Detroit.
Some argue that remittances sent from Sylheti diaspora around the world back to Bangladesh have negatively affected development in Bangladesh, where a lack of government initiatives has caused economic inertia.[61]
According to neo-classical theory, the poorest would move to the richest countries and those from densely populated areas would move to more sparsely populated regions. This has clearly not been the case. The brain drain was a movement from core to core, purely on economic maximisation, while it was young Sylheti pioneers with access to financial resources that migrated from a severely overpopulated Bangladesh to the overcrowded streets of Spitalfields, poorest from all parts of Bangladesh migrated to Sylhet for a better life, causing a severe overcrowding and scarcity of resources in Sylhet.[62]
Hinduism is the second largest religion among Sylhetis. Other minority religions include Christianity and there was a presence of Sikhism after Guru Nanak's visit to Sylhet in 1508 to spread the religion and build a gurdwara there. This Gurdwara was visited twice by Tegh Bahadur and many hukamnamas were issued to this temple in Sylhet by Guru Gobind Singh. In 1897, the gurdwara collapsed after the earthquake.
^Shahela Hamid (2011). Language Use and Identity: The Sylheti Bangladeshis in Leeds. pp.Preface. Verlag Peter Lang. Retrieved on 4 December 2020.
^ ab"The Sylheti community in Barak Valley thus presents a dispora to be located in a region marked by the geographical and cultural continuity from Sylhet. The official language of the region being Bengali, the community found mechanisms to reconstruct the environs of its lost ‘desh’ within a new state." (Deb & Bhan 2016:2)
^Nazli Kibria (2011). Muslims in Motion. pp. 58–61. Rutgers University Press.
^Sook Wilkinson (2015). Asian Americans in Michigan. pp. 166–167. Wayne State University Press.
^Harald Bauder (2012). Immigration and Settlement Challenges, Experiences, and Opportunities. Canadian Scholars' Press Incorporated. p. 239.
^"Along the linguistic continuum of eastern Indic languages, Sylheti occupies an ambiguous position, where it is considered a distinct language by many and also as a dialect of Bengali or Bangla by some others."(Mahanta & Gope 2018:81)
^Ashfaque Hossain (2022). Colonial Globalization and Its Effects on South Asia, Eastern Bengal, Sylhet, and Assam, 1874–1971. Taylor & Francis. Chapter 4.
^Dick Geary, Nicholas Hewitt (2007). Diaspora(s): Movements and Cultures. Critical, Cultural and Communications Press. p. 168.
^"Bengalis interviewed in the course of this study reported that the differences between Standard Bengali and Sylheti are relatively small...We have to consider though that these statements were made by people who originate from Sylhet and who speak both the local vernacular Sylheti and Standard Bengali." (Rasinger 2007:26–27)
^"At the geographical extremes, Chittagonian, Sylheti, Mal Paharia, and Rohingya are so unintelligible to speakers of other dialects that they are almost universally considered by linguists to be separate languages on their own." (Khan 2018)
^Hanne-Ruth Thompson (2007). Part 2: "Bangladesh" in Andrew Simpson (ed.) Language and National Identity in Asia. OUP Oxford. p.50.
^Harald Bauder (2012). Immigration and Settlement: Challenges, Experiences, and Opportunities. Canadian Scholars' Press Incorporated. p. 239.
^Ali Riaz (2014). Part 8: "Being Bengali abroad: identity politics among the Bengali community in Britain" in Mridula Nath Chakraborty Being Bengali: At Home and in the World. Taylor & Francis.
^Hossain, Ashfaque (2013). "The Making and Unmaking of Assam-Bengal Borders and the Sylhet Referendum". Modern Asian Studies. 47 (1): 260. doi:10.1017/S0026749X1200056X. JSTOR23359785. S2CID145546471. To make (the Province) financially viable, and to accede to demands from professional groups, (the colonial administration) decided in September 1874 to annex the Bengali-speaking and populous district of Sylhet.
^Sobha Satyanaf (2023). "12: Sociolinguistics of the Indo-European languages in South Asia." in Chiara Meluzzi, Martin J. Ball, Rajend Mesthrie The Routledge Handbook of Sociolinguistics Around the World. Taylor & Francis.
^ Chris Phillipson, Nilufer Raihan Ahmed, Joanna Latimer (2003). Women in Transition: A Study of the Experiences of Bangladeshi Women Living in Tower Hamlets. Policy Press. pp.43-45.
^Adrian Blackledge (2001). Power relations and the social construction of 'literacy' and 'illiteracy'. in Marilyn Martin-Jones, Kathryn Jones Multilingual Literacies: Reading and Writing Different Worlds. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp.66-68.
^Ahmed, Sofe (August 2014). "Research on Folklore in Sylhet Region of Bangladesh: A Study of Chowdhury Harun Akbor". International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature. 2 (8): 131–134.
^Thibaut d'Hubert (2018). Jāmī in Regional Contexts: The Reception of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Jāmī’s Works in the Islamicate World, ca. 9th/15th-14th/20th Century. pp.667-678. Brill.
^Maulana Abdullah ibn Saeed Jalalabadi (May 2010). জীবন-গাঙের বাঁকে বাঁকে-(২) [Curling through the River of Life (2)] (in Bengali). Al Kawsar. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
^A K M Jamal Uddin. Cultural similarities between Iran and the Indian Subcontinent.
^Atful Hye Shibly (2011). Abdul Matin Chaudhury (1895–1948): Trusted Lieutenant of Mohammad Ali Jinnah. p. 125.
^Fidler, Ceri-Anne (2011). Lascars, c.1850 – 1950: The Lives and Identities of Indian Seafarers in Imperial Britain and India (Thesis). Cardiff University. p. 123.
^Choudhury, Yousuf (1995). Sons of the Empire: Oral History from the Bangladeshi Seamen who Served on British Ships During the 1939–45 War.
Mahanta, Sakuntala; Gope, Amalesh (2018). "Tonal polarity in Sylheti in the context of noun faithfulness". Language Sciences. 69: 80–97. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2018.06.010. S2CID149759441.
