St. Joseph River (Lake Michigan)

Not to be confused with the nearby St. Joseph River in the Maumee River watershed.

St. Joseph River
La Rivière des Miamis (River of the Miamis)[1][2]
St. Joseph River flowing west from Elkhart (top) through Osceola (middle) and into Mishawaka (bottom).
Native nameSakiwäsipi (Miami-Illinois)[1]
Location
CountryUnited States
StateMichigan, Indiana
Physical characteristics
SourceBaw Beese Lake
 • locationHillsdale, Michigan
 • coordinates41°54′18″N 084°36′57″W / 41.90500°N 84.61583°W / 41.90500; -84.61583[3]
 • elevation1,096 ft (334 m)
MouthLake Michigan
 • location
St. Joseph, Michigan
 • coordinates
42°06′51″N 086°29′18″W / 42.11417°N 86.48833°W / 42.11417; -86.48833[3]
 • elevation
581 ft (177 m)[3]
Length210 mi (340 km)
Discharge 
 • locationmouth
 • average5,022.45 cu ft/s (142.220 m3/s) (estimate)[4]
Basin features
Tributaries 
 • leftColdwater River, Swan Creek, Prairie River, Fawn River, Pigeon River, Elkhart River, Little Elkhart River
 • rightNottawa Creek, Portage River, Rocky River, Dowagiac River, Paw Paw River
GNIS ID1624891

The St. Joseph River (known locally as the St. Joe) is a 210-mile-long (340 km) river that flows in a generally westerly direction through southern Michigan and northern Indiana, United States, before emptying into Lake Michigan. The St. Joseph River drainage basin covers 4,685 square miles (12,130 km2), and is the third largest watershed draining to Lake Michigan. The land within its bounds is primarily used for agriculture. The river and its tributaries provide a variety of paddling and fishing environments. Historically, the river served as an important canoe transportation route for various Native American tribes, and for French Canadian Voyageurs.

Description of the watershed

The St. Joseph River watershed drains 4,685 square miles (12,130 km2) from 15 counties: Berrien, Branch, Calhoun, Cass, Hillsdale, Kalamazoo, St. Joseph and Van Buren in Michigan and DeKalb, Elkhart, Kosciusko, LaGrange, Noble, St. Joseph and Steuben in Indiana. The watershed includes 3,742 river miles (6,022 km) and flows through and near the Kalamazoo-Portage, Elkhart-Goshen, Mishawaka-South Bend, and St. Joseph/Benton Harbor metropolitan areas.[5] The St. Joseph River main stem is 206 miles (332 km) long, rising in southern Michigan in Hillsdale County flowing from Baw Beese Lake, within 5 miles (8 km) of the headwaters of the other St. Joseph River of the eastward-flowing Maumee River watershed. Baw Beese Lake was historically named for the Potawatomi Chief Baw Beese.

The river follows a zigzag route generally westward across southern Michigan, dipping into northern Indiana. From its headwaters, it flows initially northwest past Hillsdale into southeastern Calhoun County, then turns abruptly southwest to flow past Tekonsha, Union City, Sherwood, and Mendon. At Three Rivers it is joined from the north by the Rocky and Portage rivers, and by the Prairie River from the east, after making an abrupt turn south. At Constantine it receives the Fawn River from the east. Next, after returning to a southwest course, it receives the Pigeon River from the east, near the Michigan–Indiana state line. In northern Indiana, the river flows west-southwest through Elkhart, Mishawaka, and South Bend, where it turns abruptly to north to re-enter southwestern Michigan in southeastern Berrien County. In southwestern Michigan, it follows a wide meandering route generally northwest through Niles and past Berrien Springs. Just North of Niles it receives the Dowagiac River. It divides St. Joseph and Benton Harbor, receiving the Paw Paw River from the north approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) from its mouth in St. Joseph on Lake Michigan.

There are 190 dams in the St. Joseph River watershed, and 17 on the river mainstem.[6] Most of these dams block fish passage, although fish ladders constructed on the lower dams allow salmonine passage as far as the Twin Branch Dam in Mishawaka, Indiana. But, the fish ladders are not adequate for many native species, such as sturgeon, and the dams tend to be built on the higher gradient portions of the river, which are the most critical river habitats for fish spawning.[7]

History

The St. Joseph River flows through downtown South Bend, Indiana. The abrupt turn of the river gives the city its name.

saakiiweesiipiiwi (Outlet River, also historically spelt Sakiwasipi),[8] as it was called by the Miami people, was inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous tribes as it served an essential trade avenue in the Great Lakes region. The most recent indigenous inhabitants of the area were the Miami and Potawatomi peoples.[9] Two different portages allowed nearly continuous travel by canoe among different watersheds of the region. The first major transfer point was at the headwaters in southwestern Michigan, where travelers could make a portage to the St. Joseph River of the Maumee River watershed, which drained into Lake Erie. The second major transfer point was at South Bend, Indiana, where a short portage to the nearby Kankakee River allowed access to the Illinois River and subsequently to the Mississippi. Another major access point along river was at Niles, Michigan, where the Old Sauk Trail, a major east-west Indian trail, crossed the river.

The indigenous trade and navigation networks in the area allowed for extensive trade and movement of people, which allowed early Europeans access to the area in 1675 when Père Jacques Marquette was guided up the Mississippi River via the Illinois River, then to the Kankakee River and portaged to Sakiwasipi and then down to Lake Michigan. On November 1, 1679 René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle sailed southeast across Lake Michigan and built Fort Miami at the mouth of the river.[2] La Salle named the river La Rivière des Miamis (River of the Miamis).[1]

At the end of 1679, La Salle followed indigenous trade routes in the opposite direction of that taken by Marquette; heading up the St. Joseph River and portaging to the Kankakee River, getting as far west on the Illinois River as modern-day Peoria, Illinois, before returning to Fort Miami. After giving up on the return of his ship, Le Griffon, in April 1680, he became the first European to walk the well traveled indigenous routes east across the Lower Peninsula of Michigan back to the Detroit River and Canada.[2][10] The French established Fort St. Joseph at the crossroads of Old Sauk Trail and this well-established east–west trail in 1691.

The watershed was later used as canoe route by early French fur trappers in the Illinois Country. European American settlement of the St. Joseph river basin area began to increase in earnest after southwestern Michigan was surveyed in 1829.[11] From the early 1830s until 1846, the river bore various commodities from upstream to a busy port at St. Joseph, where they were loaded onto lake boats for shipment to Chicago and elsewhere.[9]

On April 11, 1893, a Lake Michigan seiche (a phenomenon similar to an ocean tsunami) pushed a wall of water, 3 to 5 feet (0.91 to 1.52 m) high, up the river at St. Joseph and Benton Harbor. This raised the level of the river by 4 to 5 feet (1.2 to 1.5 m). The cause of the seiche was unknown, but has been attributed to a sudden squall or change in atmospheric pressure.[12]

South Bend Race Canals

Factories located in South Bend because of access to the river and hydro-power created in the East and West Races.[13] The water rights to what would become the East and West Races were claimed by Alexis Coquillard and Lathrop Taylor in 1831, when the city of South Bend was founded.[14] Although the idea of digging a mill race (man-made canal) was put forth in 1835, a dam and the East and West Races were not constructed until 1843. The construction was done by the South Bend Manufacturing Company, incorporated in December 1842 for this very purpose. The South Bend Manufacturing Company thus became owner of the water power rights on the West Race canal, while Samuel L. Cottrell purchased the water rights along the East Race canal.

In 1867 the South Bend Hydraulic Company purchased the rights to the East Race canal for $100. In 1903 the ownership of stock, property rights, and property of the South Bend Manufacturing Company on the West Race canal passed to the Oliver Chilled Plow Works.[13] Over the next two years the Oliver Chilled Plow Works constructed a hydro-electric power plant on the waterway to supply electricity for light, heat, and power to the Oliver Opera House, Oliver Hotel, South Bend factories, and other Oliver buildings.[15]

Other sources of energy and changes in technology resulted in the canals no longer being used for industrial purposes. In the late 1940s the Indiana and Michigan Electric Company purchased the rights along the East Race canal. They began filling it in around 1954 for re-use for other purposes.[13] In 1973 the Oliver Chilled Plow Works hydro-electric plant was demolished to make room for construction of the Century Center, which was completed in 1977.[13] The West Race still exists as a canal North of Jefferson Boulevard and South of Colfax Avenue on the banks of Century Center, between Pier Park and Island Park.[original research?]

In the early 1980s, the East Race canal was re-excavated. It was converted to a man-made whitewater kayaking course, now known as the East Race Waterway.

East Race Waterway

41°40′34″N 86°14′42″W / 41.676°N 86.245°W / 41.676; -86.245

East Race Waterway

In 1984, the abandoned East Race canal in South Bend, whose outlets were both at the river, was converted into the East Race Waterway, North America's first artificial whitewater waterway[16] and the first of four in the United States.[17] Locals first proposed in 1973 that the 19th-century waterway be reopened; construction began in August 1982 and the East Race reopened on June 29, 1984.[18] Through the use of movable barriers and obstacles, the East Race can be configured to provide a whitewater course for recreational and competitive canoeing, kayaking and rafting. In 2021, the East Race was temporarily closed for construction. The City of South Bend is building a hydroelectric dam on the waterway. The project was funded by the University of Notre Dame.[19]

Historic sites

Two sites in the river basin, Moccasin Bluff and Fort St. Joseph, are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. Carey Mission, Fort Miami, and Burnett Trading Post are listed as State Registered Historic Sites.[11]

Ecology and conservation

Before European settlement, the watershed was dominated by deciduous forests consisting of maple, ash, oak, elm, walnut, and beech species, along with pockets of white, red and jack pine species. There were also prairies up to several miles across, which were grazed by elk (Cervus canadensis), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), moose (Alces alces), and bison (Bison bison). By 1900 the virgin forests were mostly logged, and the prairies largely converted to agricultural use, as were many drained wetlands.[5]

Flora along the St. Joseph River bank plants at Union City, Michigan in August 2023

Among the unique natural features that remain in the watershed are prairie fens, coastal plain marshes, bogs, floodplain forests, hardwood swamps, and moist hardwood forests. Rare plants include prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis), rosinweed, tall beak rush, and umbrella grass.

The wetlands and floodplain forests provide habitat to nearly half of all migratory birds in Indiana and Michigan and are a vital habitat for resident species as well, such as wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), coyote (Canis latrans), fox, beaver (Castor canadensis), mink (Neogale vison), Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis), eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina), and the rare spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata) and northern redbelly snake (Storeria occipitomaculata occipitomaculata), both protected by the state of Michigan. The lower Pigeon River is home to the federally endangered Indiana Bat.[5]

In 1969, the Michigan Department of Natural Resources began stocking the lower 23 miles (37 km) of the river for steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). In 1975, Michigan constructed a fish ladder at the Berrien Springs Dam to enable the salmonids to run an additional 10 miles (16 km) upstream to the Buchanan Dam. In 1980 the Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Indiana Department of Natural Resources and United States Fish and Wildlife Service signed the "St. Joseph River Interstate Cooperative Salmonid Management Plan", which led to construction of fish ladders at the Buchanan, Niles, South Bend and Mishawaka dams. By 1992 the salmonid runs were extended to the Twin Branch Dam in Indiana, a distance of 63 miles (101 km) from Lake Michigan. This enabled the trout and salmon to spawn in coldwater tributaries such as McCoy Creek.[5][20]

Although completion of fish ladders on the lowest five mainstem dams in 1992 allowed salmonine passage as far as Twin Branch Dam in Mishawaka, Indiana, 94% of the fish that pass are salmon and trout, as the ladders were not designed to permit passage of migrating native fish. Historically, the migrating native species included lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens), bass (smallmouth and largemouth), redhorse (silver, golden, shorthead, river, and greater) (Moxostoma ssp.), walleye (Sander vitreus), lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis), northern pike (Esox lucius) and American pickerel (E. americanus vermiculatus). Every spring the Potawatomi and early settlers used spears, seines and dip nets to catch their annual supply of fish. The abundance of lake sturgeon made the area around Niles famous in the mid-to late-1800s. Fish up to 12 feet (3.7 m) long and 300 pounds (140 kg) were taken by anglers, and their roe was exported to Russia as caviar. Sturgeon used to migrate as far as Hillsdale County, Michigan, and Sturgeon Lake near Colon, Michigan, still bears the name of this mighty fish.[21] Now the spawning sturgeon rarely reach Niles, as they are impeded by the dam at Berrien Springs, reducing the length of the river used by them for spawning by 155 miles (249 km). Historically, ninety-seven species of fish were native to the St. Joseph River Basin.[7]

In 1994, the Friends of the St. Joe River (FotSJR), a non-profit conservation organization, was founded by Athens, Michigan, residents Al and Margaret Smith, to organize the river communities to clean and restore the river. In 2002 FotSJR developed the St. Joseph River Watershed Management Plan, with grant support from the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality. The river delivers significant pollutants to Lake Michigan - including sewage overflows from riverside communities, sediments and toxic substances such as mercury and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB).[5] When the plan was developed, the river carried the greatest portion of atrazine into Lake Michigan. It is an agricultural herbicide associated with cancer even at low levels and is a very common contaminant of drinking water.[22]

Recreation

The St. Joseph River is a trout and salmon sport fishery, encompassing 47 miles (76 km) of river in Michigan and 16 miles (26 km) in Indiana. The economic benefits to local Michigan and Indiana communities are estimated at several million dollars annually.[20]

Canoeists can travel the entire length of the main stem, if they are prepared to portage. Many of the larger tributaries offer opportunities for paddling, hiking, hunting, and fishing.

Cities, towns, and villages along the St. Joseph River

The St. Joseph River at Elkhart, Indiana
The St, Joseph River between Benton Harbor and St Joseph near Lake Michigan

Dams

A list of dams on the St. Joseph River.

Name State Located Height Purpose Type Capacity (MW) Year Owner Name Size of Storage (Acre Ft) Coordinates Comments
A H Randal Milling Dam[23] Michigan 7.17'[23] Other[23] Unknown 1836[23] Randal Food Products[23] 56[23] 42°05'18.0"N 84°59'12.0"W
Ball Band Dam (In-Channel)[24][25] Indiana 10'[24] Other[24] Concrete[24] 2.201917[26] 1834[24] Edgewater LLC[24] 291[24] 41°39'47.2"N 86°10'38.2"W
Baw Beese Lake Dame[27] Michigan 6.2'[27] Recreation[27] Concrete[27] 1979[27] Hillsdale County Drain Commissioner 1,950[27] 41°54'36.0"N 84°36'57.0"W
Berrien Springs Dam[28][25] Michigan 36'[28] Hydroelectric[28] Gravity, Earth[28] 7.2[26][25] 1908[28][25] American Electric Power[28] 6,400[28] 41°56'39.0"N 86°19'41.5"W
Buchanan Dam[29][25] Michigan 23'[29] Hydroelectric[29] Gravity, Earth[29] 4.4[26] 1895[29] Indiana & Michigan  Power Company[29] 3,895[29] 41°50'20.7"N 86°21'04.5"W
Constantine Dam[25][30] Michigan 30'[30] Hydroelectric[30] Gravity, Earth[30] 1.2[25][26] 1873[30] Indiana & Michigan  Power Company[30] 5,750[30] 41°50′49.90″N 85°40′5.96″W / 41.8471944°N 85.6683222°W / 41.8471944; -85.6683222
Elkhart Dam[25] Indiana 3.4[25] 1913[25] American Electric Power[25]
French Hydro[31] Michigan 13'[31] Hydroelectric[31] Arch, Earth[31] 1.3[26] 1914[31] French Hydro, LLC[31] 1,600[31] 41°49'03.4"N 86°15'32.8"W
French Paper Company[32]

AKA Niles Dam

Michigan 22'[32] Hydroelectric[32] Gravity, Earth[32] 1887[32] French Paper Company[32] 1,600[32] 41°49'03.6"N 86°15'32.9"W
Hillsdale Millpond Dam[33] Michigan 14'[33] Recreation[33] Earth[33] 1837[33] City of Hillsdale[33] 100[33] 41°54'54.6"N 84°37'30.8"W
Jonesville Millpond Dam[34] Michigan 9'[34] Recreation[34] Gravity, Earth[34] 1872[34] Private Ownership,

Jack Mosley[34]

170[34] 41°58'24.0"N 84°39'36.0"W
Litchfield Dam[35] Michigan 8'[35] Other[35] Earth[35] 1846[35] Memorial Mile Club, Inc[35] 52[35] 42°02'05.6"N 84°44'10.1"W
Mottville Dam[36][25] Michigan 23'[36] Hydroelectric, Recreation[36] Gravity, Earth[36] 1.68[26][25] 1920[36] Indiana & Michigan  Power Company[36] 4,256[36] 41°48'20.0"N 85°44'59.8"W
Riley Dam AKA Union City Dam[25][37] Michigan 20.3'[37] Hydroelectric[37] Gravity, Earth[37] .417[26] 1923[37] Village of Union City[37] 5,000[37] 42°02'39.3"N 85°12'10.8"W
South Bend Dam[25] Indiana Hydroelectric[38] 2.5[38] 1859[25][38]
Sturgis Dam[25][39] Michigan 25'[39] Hydroelectric[39] Buttress, Earth[39] 2.2[26] 1913[39] City of Sturgis[25][39] 9,300[39] 41°58'15.2"N 85°32'18.1"W
Three Rivers Dam

AKA Fairbanks Morse Dam[25][40]

Michigan 16'[40] Hydroelectric[40] Gravity, Earth[40] .9[26] 1917[40] Grande Pointe Power[25][40] 902[40] 41°56'27.0"N 85°37'29.8"W
Twin Branch Dam[41] Indiana 41'[41] Hydroelectric[41] Gravity, Timber Crib, Earth[41] 4.8[26] 1903[41] Indiana & Michigan  Power Company[41][26] 10,000[41] 41°39′56.98″N 86°7′58.03″W / 41.6658278°N 86.1327861°W / 41.6658278; -86.1327861

Crossings

St. Joseph River crossings are located in towns or cities within seven counties of two states.

List of Crossings
Name Type City County State Location
CSX Grand Rapids Subdivision Railroad St. Joseph Berrien Michigan
M-63 (Blossomland Bridge) Michigan Highway 42°6′44.44″N 86°28′40.39″W / 42.1123444°N 86.4778861°W / 42.1123444; -86.4778861
BL I-94 Interstate business loop St. Joseph/Benton Harbor border
Napier Avenue City Street St. Joseph/St. Joseph Charter Township border
I-94 Interstate Highway Royalton Township/Benton Charter Township border
M-139 Michigan highway Royalton Township/Benton Charter Township border
US 31 US Route Sodus Township/Oronoko Charter Township border
M-139 (East Ferry Street) Michigan highway Berrien Springs 42°3′29.18″N 86°26′18.35″W / 42.0581056°N 86.4384306°W / 42.0581056; -86.4384306
US 31 US Route Oronoko Charter Township/Berrien Township border 41°59′8.93″N 86°22′16.64″W / 41.9858139°N 86.3712889°W / 41.9858139; -86.3712889
Walton Road County Road Buchanan/Buchanan Township border
US 31 US Route Niles Charter Township
Amtrak Michigan Line Railroad Niles
M-139 Michigan Highway
US 12 (Pulaski Highway) US Route Niles Charter Township/Bertrand Township border
West Bertrand Road County road Niles Charter Township/Bertrand Township border 41°46′28.13″N 86°16′1.93″W / 41.7744806°N 86.2672028°W / 41.7744806; -86.2672028
Auten Road County road German Township/Clay Township border St. Joseph Indiana
Darden Road County road German Township/Clay Township border

US 31 Bus. (Cleveland Road) 		City street Clay Township/South Bend border
I-80/ I-90 (Indiana Toll Road) Interstate Highway South Bend
Coal Line Trail rail trail Former railroad
West Angela Boulevard City Street

SR 933 / US 31 Bus. (Michigan Street) 		City street
East LaSalle Street City Street
East Colfax Avenue City Street
East Jefferson Boulevard City Street
SR 23 (South Eddy Street) City Street
East Sample Street City Street
Railroad Railroad
Twyckenham Drive City Street
South Ironwood Drive City Street Mishawaka
Logan Street City Street
North Main Street City Street
North Cedar Street City Street
East Mishawaka Avenue City Street
SR 331 (Capital Avenue) City Street
North Bittersweet Road City Street
Ash Road (former SR 219) City Street St. Joseph County/Elkhart County border
SR 19 (South Nappanee Street) City Street Elkhart Elkhart
Bridge Street City Street
West Lexington Avenue City Street
Sherman Street City Street
Main Street City Street
Island Park access Trail
Railroad
Johnson Street City Street
CR 17 County Road Concord Township/Osolo Township/Washington Township border
SR 15 (North Division Street) City Street Bristol
I-80/ I-90 (Indiana Toll Road) Interstate Highway
US 12 US Route Mottville St. Joseph Michigan 41°48′0″N 85°45′24.84″W / 41.80000°N 85.7569000°W / 41.80000; -85.7569000
Camelback bridge (Old US 12) Pedestrian bridge
US 131 US Route Constantine Township 41°50′3.09″N 85°40′42.47″W / 41.8341917°N 85.6784639°W / 41.8341917; -85.6784639

Bus. US 131 (North Washington Street) 		City Street Constantine 41°50′34.39″N 85°40′10.72″W / 41.8428861°N 85.6696444°W / 41.8428861; -85.6696444
Withers Road County Road
Constantine Road County Road
M-86 Michigan Highway Three Rivers 41°56′39″N 85°37′56″W / 41.94417°N 85.63222°W / 41.94417; -85.63222
Sixth Street City Street
Langley Covered Bridge (Covered Bridge Road) County Road Lockport Township 41°58′02″N 085°31′41″W / 41.96722°N 85.52806°W / 41.96722; -85.52806
S. Nottawa Street County Road Mendon 42°0′18.3″N 85°26′58.3″W / 42.005083°N 85.449528°W / 42.005083; -85.449528
M-66 Michigan Highway Mendon Township/Leonidas Township border 42°0′27.58″N 85°24′40.38″W / 42.0076611°N 85.4112167°W / 42.0076611; -85.4112167
South Broadway Street City Street Union City Branch County
11 Mile Road County Road Burlington Calhoun County 42°6′17″N 85°4′43″W / 42.10472°N 85.07861°W / 42.10472; -85.07861
I-69 Interstate Highway Tekonsha 42°5′16.13″N 84°59′53.45″W / 42.0878139°N 84.9981806°W / 42.0878139; -84.9981806
M-49 (S. Chicago Street) Michigan Highway Litchfield Hillsdale County 42°02′35″N 84°45′25″W / 42.04306°N 84.75694°W / 42.04306; -84.75694
US 12/ M-99 (W. Chicago Street) US Route/Michigan Highway Jonesville 41°58′52″N 84°39′59″W / 41.98111°N 84.66639°W / 41.98111; -84.66639

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c McCafferty, Michael (2008). Native American place names of Indiana. University of Illinois Press. p. 8. ISBN 9780252032684. Retrieved April 24, 2011.
  2. ^ a b c Timothy Edward Howard (1907). A history of St. Joseph County, Indiana, Volume 1. The Lewis publishing company. p. 23. Retrieved April 22, 2011.
  3. ^ a b c U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Saint Joseph River
  4. ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency. "Watershed Report: Saint Joseph River". watersgeo.epa.gov. Archived from the original on July 1, 2021. Retrieved July 1, 2021.
  5. ^ a b c d e DeGraves, Andrew (June 2005). St. Joseph River Watershed Management Plan (PDF) (Report). Friends of the St. Joe River Association. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
  6. ^ St. Joseph River Watershed Fish Migration Barrier Inventory (PDF) (Report). Potawatami Resource Conservation & Development Council. 2011. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
  7. ^ a b Jay K. Wesley; Joan A. Duffy (September 1999). St. Joseph River Assessment:Fisheries Report 24 (PDF) (Report). Michigan Department of Natural Resources. pp. 1–116. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
  8. ^ Miami-Illinois Indigenous Languages Digital Archive, "saakiiweesiipiiw- (n.inan) St. Joseph River (Lake Michigan)" https://mc.miamioh.edu/ilda-myaamia/dictionary/entries/5808
  9. ^ a b Bogue, Margaret Beattie (1985). Around the Shores of Lake Michigan: A Guide to Historic Sites, p. 334. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-10004-9.
  10. ^ Ida Amanda Johnson (1919). The Michigan fur trade, Parts 1-2. Michigan historical commission. p. 12. Retrieved April 22, 2011.
  11. ^ a b Wesley, Jay K., & Duffy, Joan E. (1999). St. Joseph River Assessment, pp. 22-24. Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Fisheries Division. Retrieved 2011-01-30.
  12. ^ Hilton, George Woodman (2002). Lake Michigan Passenger Steamers, p. 13. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4240-5.
  13. ^ a b c d Center for History "East Race Waterway." Retrieved on 2014-03-28.
  14. ^ St. Joseph County Public Library "East Race Waterway." Retrieved on 2014-03-28.
  15. ^ Downtown South Bend History "History of South Bend." Retrieved on 2014-03-28.
  16. ^ South Bend Parks and Recreation "East Race Waterway." Retrieved on 2008-02-01.
  17. ^ The other three are Dickerson Whitewater Course, U.S. National Whitewater Center, and Adventure Sports Center International. A fifth course, Ocoee Whitewater Center, built in a modified riverbed for the 1996 Olympics, is no longer used for training or competition.[citation needed]
  18. ^ Blasko, Erin (July 19, 2013). "East Race Waterway Celebrates 30 Years". South Bend Tribune. Retrieved July 21, 2013.
  19. ^ "Notre Dame Hydro Project: preparing for a sustainable future by looking to the past. | Energy & Emissions | Get Involved | Office of Sustainability | University of Notre Dame".
  20. ^ a b "Interstate Anadromous Fish Project". Michigan Department of Natural Resources. Retrieved April 23, 2011.
  21. ^ "Sturgeon Lake". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior.
  22. ^ University of California - Berkeley (March 1, 2010). "Pesticide Atrazine Can Turn Male Frogs Into Females". Science Daily. Retrieved April 24, 2011.
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  24. ^ a b c d e f g "National Inventory of Dams". nid.sec.usace.army.mil. Retrieved June 29, 2024.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Lowe, Sue (September 27, 2001). "Power Drivers: Dams' history mirrors river communities' expansion". The South Bend Tribune. p. 8.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Hydro". National Hydropower Association. October 10, 2017. Retrieved June 29, 2024.
  27. ^ a b c d e f "National Inventory of Dams". nid.sec.usace.army.mil. Retrieved June 29, 2024.
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Further reading

  • Lane, Kit (2010). The St. Joseph. Rivers of Michigan. Douglas, Michigan: Pavilion Press. ISBN 978-1-877703-05-8.
  • Webster, Mildred E. and Krause, Fred (1986). French St. Joseph: Le Poste De La Rivière St. Joseph. n.p. Mildred E. Webster.
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