Source gives area of metropolitan France as 551,500 km2 (212,900 sq mi) and lists overseas regions separately, whose areas sum to 89,179 km2 (34,432 sq mi). Adding these give the total shown here for the entire French Republic. The World Factbook reports the total as 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi).
Originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the LatinFrancia, or "realm of the Franks".[19] The name of the Franks is related to the English word frank ("free"): the latter stems from the Old Frenchfranc ("free, noble, sincere"), and ultimately from the Medieval Latin word francus ("free, exempt from service; freeman, Frank"), a generalisation of the tribal name that emerged as a Late Latin borrowing of the reconstructed Frankishendonym*Frank.[20][21] It has been suggested that the meaning "free" was adopted because, after the conquest of Gaul, only Franks were free of taxation,[22] or more generally because they had the status of freemen in contrast to servants or slaves.[21] The etymology of *Frank is uncertain. It is traditionally derived from the Proto-Germanic word *frankōn, which translates as "javelin" or "lance" (the throwing axe of the Franks was known as the francisca),[23] although these weapons may have been named because of their use by the Franks, not the other way around.[21]
In 600 BC, IonianGreeks from Phocaea founded the colony of Massalia (present-day Marseille).[28] Celtic tribes penetrated parts of eastern and northern France, spreading through the rest of the country between the 5th and 3rd century BC.[29] Around 390 BC, the Gallic chieftainBrennus and his troops made their way to Roman Italy, defeated the Romans in the Battle of the Allia, and besieged and ransomed Rome.[30] This left Rome weakened, and the Gauls continued to harass the region until 345 BC when they entered into a peace treaty.[31] But the Romans and the Gauls remained adversaries for centuries.[32]
Around 125 BC, the south of Gaul was conquered by the Romans, who called this region Provincia Nostra ("Our Province"), which evolved into Provence in French.[33]Julius Caesar conquered the remainder of Gaul and overcame a revolt by Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix in 52 BC.[34] Gaul was divided by Augustus into provinces[35] and many cities were founded during the Gallo-Roman period, including Lugdunum (present-day Lyon), the capital of the Gauls.[35] In 250–290 AD, Roman Gaul suffered a crisis with its fortified borders attacked by barbarians.[36] The situation improved in the first half of the 4th century, a period of revival and prosperity.[37] In 312, Emperor Constantine Iconverted to Christianity. Christians, who had been persecuted, increased.[38] But from the 5th century, the Barbarian Invasions resumed.[39]Teutonic tribes invaded the region, the Visigoths settling in the southwest, the Burgundians along the Rhine River Valley, and the Franks in the north.[40]
The first leader to unite all Franks was Clovis I, who began his reign as king of the Salian Franks in 481, routing the last forces of the Roman governors in 486. Clovis said he would be baptised a Christian in the event of victory against the Visigothic Kingdom, which was said to have guaranteed the battle. Clovis regained the southwest from the Visigoths and was baptised in 508. Clovis I was the first Germanic conqueror after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity; thus France was given the title "Eldest daughter of the Church" by the papacy,[41] and French kings called "the Most Christian Kings of France".
During the 9th and 10th centuries, threatened by Viking invasions, France became a decentralised state: the nobility's titles and lands became hereditary, and authority of the king became more religious than secular, and so was less effective and challenged by noblemen. Thus was established feudalism in France. Some king's vassals grew so powerful they posed a threat to the king. After the Battle of Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror added "King of England" to his titles, becoming vassal and the equal of the king of France, creating recurring tensions.
The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet was crowned king of the Franks.[44] His descendants unified the country through wars and inheritance. From 1190, the Capetian rulers began to be referred as "kings of France" rather than "kings of the Franks".[45] Later kings expanded their directly possessed domaine royal to cover over half of modern France by the 15th century. Royal authority became more assertive, centred on a hierarchically conceived society distinguishing nobility, clergy, and commoners.
The nobility played a prominent role in Crusades to restore Christian access to the Holy Land. French knights made up most reinforcements in the 200 years of the Crusades, in such a fashion that the Arabs referred to crusaders as Franj.[46] French Crusaders imported French into the Levant, making Old French the base of the lingua franca ("Frankish language") of the Crusader states.[46] The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars in the southwest of modern-day France.[47]
From the 11th century, the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the County of Anjou, established its dominion over the surrounding provinces of Maine and Touraine, then built an "empire" from England to the Pyrenees, covering half of modern France. Tensions between France and the Plantagenet empire would last a hundred years, until Philip II of France conquered, between 1202 and 1214, most continental possessions of the empire, leaving England and Aquitaine to the Plantagenets.
Charles IV the Fair died without an heir in 1328.[48] The crown passed to Philip of Valois, rather than Edward of Plantagenet, who became Edward III of England. During the reign of Philip, the monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.[48] However Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward in 1337, and England and France entered the off-and-on Hundred Years' War.[49] Boundaries changed, but landholdings inside France by English Kings remained extensive for decades. With charismatic leaders, such as Joan of Arc, French counterattacks won back most English continental territories. France was struck by the Black Death, from which half of the 17 million population died.[50]
The French Renaissance saw cultural development and standardisation of French, which became the official language of France and Europe's aristocracy. France became rivals of the House of Habsburg during the Italian Wars, which would dictate much of their later foreign policy until the mid-18th century. French explorers claimed lands in the Americas, paving expansion of the French colonial empire. The rise of Protestantism led France to a civil war known as the French Wars of Religion.[51] This forced Huguenots to flee to Protestant regions such as the British Isles and Switzerland. The wars were ended by Henry IV's Edict of Nantes, which granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots. Spanish troops,[52] assisted the Catholics from 1589 to 1594 and invaded France in 1597. Spain and France returned to all-out war between 1635 and 1659. The war cost France 300,000 casualties.[53]
Under Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu promoted centralisation of the state and reinforced royal power. He destroyed castles of defiant lords and denounced the use of private armies. By the end of the 1620s, Richelieu established "the royal monopoly of force".[54] France fought in the Thirty Years' War, supporting the Protestant side against the Habsburgs. From the 16th to the 19th century, France was responsible for about 10% of the transatlantic slave trade.[55]
During Louis XIV's minority, trouble known as The Fronde occurred. This rebellion was driven by feudal lords and sovereign courts as a reaction to the royal absolute power. The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and reign of Louis XIV. By turning lords into courtiers at the Palace of Versailles, his command of the military went unchallenged. The "Sun King" made France the leading European power. France became the most populous European country and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the most-used language in diplomacy, science, and literature until the 20th century.[56] France took control of territories in the Americas, Africa and Asia. In 1685, Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, forcing thousands of Huguenots into exile and published the Code Noir providing the legal framework for slavery and expelling Jews from French colonies.[57]
The French Revolution was a period of political and societal change that began with the Estates General of 1789, and ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 and the formation of the French Consulate. Many of its ideas are fundamental principles of liberal democracy,[59] while its values and institutions remain central to modern political discourse.[60]
These victories led to the worldwide expansion of French revolutionary ideals and reforms, such as the metric system, Napoleonic Code and Declaration of the Rights of Man. In 1812 Napoleon attacked Russia, reaching Moscow. Thereafter his army disintegrated through supply problems, disease, Russian attacks, and finally winter. After this catastrophic campaign and the ensuing uprising of European monarchies against his rule, Napoleon was defeated. About a million Frenchmen died during the Napoleonic Wars.[62] After his brief return from exile, Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, and the Bourbon monarchy was restored with new constitutional limitations.
The discredited Bourbon dynasty was overthrown by the July Revolution of 1830, which established the constitutional July Monarchy; French troops began the conquest of Algeria. Unrest led to the French Revolution of 1848 and the end of the July Monarchy. The abolition of slavery and introduction of male universal suffrage was re-enacted in 1848. In 1852, president of the French Republic, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, Napoleon I's nephew, was proclaimed emperor of the Second Empire, as Napoleon III. He multiplied French interventions abroad, especially in Crimea, Mexico and Italy. Napoleon III was unseated following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and his regime replaced by the Third Republic. By 1875, the French conquest of Algeria was complete, with approximately 825,000 Algerians killed from famine, disease, and violence.[63]
France had colonial possessions since the beginning of the 17th century, but in the 19th and 20th centuries its empire extended greatly and became the second-largest behind the British Empire.[14] Including metropolitan France, the total area reached almost 13 million square kilometres in the 1920s and 1930s, 9% of the world's land. Known as the Belle Époque, the turn of the century was characterised by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In 1905, state secularism was officially established.
A new constitution resulted in the Fourth Republic (1946–1958), which saw strong economic growth (les Trente Glorieuses). France was a founding member of NATO and attempted to regain control of French Indochina, but was defeated by the Viet Minh in 1954. France faced another anti-colonialistconflict in Algeria, then part of France and home to over one million European settlers (Pied-Noir). The French systematically used torture and repression, including extrajudicial killings to keep control.[69] This conflict nearly led to a coup and civil war.[70]
During the Cold War, de Gaulle pursued a policy of "national independence" towards the Western and Eastern blocs. He withdrew from NATO's military-integrated command (while remaining within the alliance), launched a nuclear development programme and made France the fourth nuclear power. He restored cordial Franco-German relations to create a European counterweight between American and Soviet spheres of influence. However, he opposed any development of a supranational Europe, favouring sovereign nations. The revolt of May 1968 had an enormous social impact; it was a watershed moment when a conservative moral ideal (religion, patriotism, respect for authority) shifted to a more liberal moral ideal (secularism, individualism, sexual revolution). Although the revolt was a political failure (the Gaullist party emerged stronger than before) it announced a split between the French and de Gaulle, who resigned.[74]
In the post-Gaullist era, France remained one of the most developed economies in the world but faced crises that resulted in high unemployment rates and increasing public debt. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, France has been at the forefront of the development of a supranational European Union, notably by signing the Maastricht Treaty in 1992, establishing the eurozone in 1999 and signing the Treaty of Lisbon in 2007.[75] France has fully reintegrated into NATO and since participated in most NATO-sponsored wars.[76] Since the 19th century, France has received many immigrants, often male foreign workers from European Catholic countries who generally returned home when not employed.[77] During the 1970s France faced an economic crisis and allowed new immigrants (mostly from the Maghreb, in northwest Africa)[77] to permanently settle in France with their families and acquire citizenship. It resulted in hundreds of thousands of Muslims living in subsidised public housing and suffering from high unemployment rates.[78] The government had a policy of assimilation of immigrants, where they were expected to adhere to French values and norms.[79]
The vast majority of France's territory and population is situated in Western Europe and is called Metropolitan France. It is bordered by the North Sea in the north, the English Channel in the northwest, the Atlantic Ocean in the west and the Mediterranean Sea in the southeast. Its land borders consist of Belgium and Luxembourg in the northeast, Germany and Switzerland in the east, Italy and Monaco in the southeast, and Andorra and Spain in the south and southwest. Except for the northeast, most of France's land borders are roughly delineated by natural boundaries and geographic features: to the south and southeast, the Pyrenees and the Alps and the Jura, respectively, and to the east, the Rhine river. Metropolitan France includes various coastal islands, of which the largest is Corsica. Metropolitan France is situated mostly between latitudes 41° and 51° N, and longitudes 6° W and 10° E, on the western edge of Europe, and thus lies within the northern temperate zone. Its continental part covers about 1000 km from north to south and from east to west.
Metropolitan France covers 551,500 square kilometres (212,935 sq mi),[84] the largest among European Union members.[18] France's total land area, with its overseas departments and territories (excluding Adélie Land), is 643,801 km2 (248,573 sq mi), 0.45% of the total land area on Earth. France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains in the north and west to mountain ranges of the Alps in the southeast, the Massif Central in the south-central and Pyrenees in the southwest.
Due to its numerous overseas departments and territories scattered across the planet, France possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,261,000 sq mi). Its EEZ covers approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world.
Metropolitan France has a wide variety of topographical sets and natural landscapes. During the Hercynian uplift in the Paleozoic Era, the Armorican Massif, the Massif Central, the Morvan, the Vosges and Ardennes ranges and the island of Corsica were formed. These massifs delineate several sedimentary basins such as the Aquitaine Basin in the southwest and the Paris Basin in the north. Various routes of natural passage, such as the Rhône Valley, allow easy communication. The Alpine, Pyrenean and Jura mountains are much younger and have less eroded forms. At 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft)[85] above sea level, Mont Blanc, located in the Alps on the France–Italy border, is the highest point in Western Europe. Although 60% of municipalities are classified as having seismic risks (though moderate).
The coastlines offer contrasting landscapes: mountain ranges along the French Riviera, coastal cliffs such as the Côte d'Albâtre, and wide sandy plains in the Languedoc. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast. France has an extensive river system consisting of the four major rivers Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, the Rhône and their tributaries, whose combined catchment includes over 62% of the metropolitan territory. The Rhône divides the Massif Central from the Alps and flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the Camargue. The Garonne meets the Dordogne just after Bordeaux, forming the Gironde estuary, the largest estuary in Western Europe which after approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) empties into the Atlantic Ocean.[86] Other water courses drain towards the Meuse and Rhine along the northeastern borders. France has 11,000,000 km2 (4,200,000 sq mi) of marine waters within three oceans under its jurisdiction, of which 97% are overseas.
Like all European Union state members, France agreed to cut carbon emissions by at least 20% of 1990 levels by 2020.[94] As of 2009[update], French carbon dioxide emissions per capita were lower than that of China.[95] The country was set to impose a carbon tax in 2009;[96] however, the plan was abandoned due to fears of burdening French businesses.[97]
Forests account for 31 per cent of France's land area—the fourth-highest proportion in Europe—representing an increase of 7 per cent since 1990.[98][99][100] French forests are some of the most diverse in Europe, comprising more than 140 species of trees.[101] France had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.52/10, ranking it 123rd globally.[102] There are nine national parks[103] and 46 natural parks in France.[104] A regional nature park[105] (French: parc naturel régional or PNR) is a public establishment in France between local authorities and the national government covering an inhabited rural area of outstanding beauty, to protect the scenery and heritage as well as setting up sustainable economic development in the area.[106][107] As of 2019[update] there are 54 PNRs in France.[108]
France is a representative democracy organised as a unitary semi-presidential republic.[109] Democratic traditions and values are deeply rooted in French culture, identity and politics.[110] The Constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by referendum on 28 September 1958, establishing a framework consisting of executive, legislative and judicial branches.[111] It sought to address the instability of the Third and Fourth Republics by combining elements of both parliamentary and presidential systems, while greatly strengthening the authority of the executive relative to the legislature.[110]
The executive branch has two leaders. The President of the Republic, currently Emmanuel Macron, is the head of state, elected directly by universal adult suffrage for a five-year term.[112] The Prime Minister, currently Michel Barnier, is the head of government, appointed by the President to lead the government. The President has the power to dissolve Parliament or circumvent it by submitting referendums directly to the people; the President also appoints judges and civil servants, negotiates and ratifies international agreements, as well as serves as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The Prime Minister determines public policy and oversees the civil service, with an emphasis on domestic matters.[113] In the 2022 presidential election, president Macron was re-elected.[114] Two months later, in the June 2022 legislative elections, Macron lost his parliamentary majority and had to form a minority government.[115]
The legislature consists of the French Parliament, a bicameral body made up of a lower house, the National Assembly (Assemblée nationale) and an upper house, the Senate.[116] Legislators in the National Assembly, known as députés, represent local constituencies and are directly elected for five-year terms.[117] The Assembly has the power to dismiss the government by majority vote. Senators are chosen by an electoral college for six-year terms, with half the seats submitted to election every three years.[118] The Senate's legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between the two chambers, the National Assembly has the final say.[119] The parliament is responsible for determining the rules and principles concerning most areas of law, political amnesty, and fiscal policy; however, the government may draft specific details concerning most laws.
The electorate is constitutionally empowered to vote on amendments passed by the Parliament and bills submitted by the president. Referendums have played a key role in shaping French politics and even foreign policy; voters have decided on such matters as Algeria's independence, the election of the president by popular vote, the formation of the EU, and the reduction of presidential term limits.[123]
Since 2016, France is divided into 18 administrative regions: 13 regions in metropolitan France (including Corsica),[124] and five overseas.[84] The regions are further subdivided into 101 departments,[125] which are numbered mainly alphabetically. The department number is used in postal codes and was formerly used on vehicle registration plates. Among the 101 French departments, five (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Réunion) are in overseas regions (ROMs) that are simultaneously overseas departments (DOMs), enjoying the same status as metropolitan departments and are thereby included in the European Union.
The 101 departments are subdivided into 335 arrondissements, which are, in turn, subdivided into 2,054 cantons.[126] These cantons are then divided into 36,658 communes, which are municipalities with an elected municipal council.[126] Three communes—Paris, Lyon and Marseille—are subdivided into 45 municipal arrondissements.
French foreign policy after World War II has been largely shaped by membership in the European Union, of which it was a founding member. Since the 1960s, France has developed close ties with reunified Germany to become the most influential driving force of the EU.[139] Since 1904, France has maintained an "Entente cordiale" with the United Kingdom, and there has been a strengthening of links between the countries, especially militarily.
France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), but under President de Gaulle excluded itself from the joint military command, in protest of the Special Relationship between the United States and Britain, and to preserve the independence of French foreign and security policies. Under Nicolas Sarkozy, France rejoined the NATO joint military command on 4 April 2009.[140][141][142]
In 2017, France was the world's fourth-largest donor of development aid in absolute terms, behind the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom.[145] This represents 0.43% of its GNP, the 12th highest among the OECD.[146] Aid is provided by the governmental French Development Agency, which finances primarily humanitarian projects in sub-Saharan Africa,[147] with an emphasis on "developing infrastructure, access to health care and education, the implementation of appropriate economic policies and the consolidation of the rule of law and democracy".[147]
France has major military industries and one of the largest aerospace sectors in the world.[153] The country has produced such equipment as the Rafale fighter, the Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier, the Exocet missile and the Leclerc tank among others. France is a major arms seller,[154][155] with most of its arsenal's designs available for the export market, except for nuclear-powered devices.
One French intelligence unit, the Directorate-General for External Security (Direction générale de la sécurité extérieure), is considered to be a component of the Armed Forces under the authority of the Ministry of Defense. The other, the Directorate-General for Internal Security (Direction générale de la Sécurité intérieure) operates under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior.[156] France's cybersecurity capabilities are regularly ranked as some of the most robust of any nation in the world.[157][158]
French weapons exported totaled 27 billion euros in 2022, up from 11.7 billion euros the previous year 2021. Additionally, the UAE alone contributed more than 16 billion euros arms to the French total.[159] Among the largest French defence companies are Dassault, Thales and Safran.[160]
France uses a civil legal system, wherein law arises primarily from written statutes;[84] judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judicial interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to case law in a common law system). Basic principles of the rule of law were laid in the Napoleonic Code (which was largely based on the royal law codified under Louis XIV). In agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society.
French law is divided into two principal areas: private law and public law. Private law includes, in particular, civil law and criminal law. Public law includes, in particular, administrative law and constitutional law. However, in practical terms, French law comprises three principal areas of law: civil law, criminal law, and administrative law. Criminal laws can only address the future and not the past (criminal ex post facto laws are prohibited).[161] While administrative law is often a subcategory of civil law in many countries, it is completely separated in France and each body of law is headed by a specific supreme court: ordinary courts (which handle criminal and civil litigation) are headed by the Court of Cassation and administrative courts are headed by the Council of State. To be applicable, every law must be officially published in the Journal officiel de la République française.[citation needed]
France does not recognise religious law as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions; it has long abolished blasphemy laws and sodomy laws (the latter in 1791). However, "offences against public decency" (contraires aux bonnes mœurs) or disturbing public order (trouble à l'ordre public) have been used to repress public expressions of homosexuality or street prostitution.[citation needed]
France's economy is highly diversified; services represent two-thirds of both the workforce and GDP,[172] while the industrial sector accounts for a fifth of GDP and a similar proportion of employment. France is the third-biggest manufacturing country in Europe, behind Germany and Italy, and ranks eighth in the world by share of global manufacturing output, at 1.9 per cent.[173] Less than 2 per cent of GDP is generated by the primary sector, namely agriculture;[174] however, France's agricultural sector is among the largest in value and leads the EU in terms of overall production.[175]
In 2018, France was the fifth-largest trading nation in the world and the second-largest in Europe, with the value of exports representing over a fifth of GDP.[176] Its membership in the eurozone and the broader European single market facilitates access to capital, goods, services, and skilled labour.[177] Despite protectionist policies over certain industries, particularly in agriculture, France has generally played a leading role in fostering free trade and commercial integration in Europe to enhance its economy.[178][179] In 2019, it ranked first in Europe and 13th in the world in foreign direct investment, with European countries and the United States being leading sources.[180] According to the Bank of France (founded in 1800),[181] the leading recipients of FDI were manufacturing, real estate, finance and insurance.[182] The Paris Region has the highest concentration of multinational firms in mainland Europe.[182]
Under the doctrine of Dirigisme, the government historically played a major role in the economy; policies such as indicative planning and nationalisation are credited for contributing to three decades of unprecedented postwar economic growth known as Trente Glorieuses. At its peak in 1982, the public sector accounted for one-fifth of industrial employment and over four-fifths of the credit market. Beginning in the late 20th century, France loosened regulations and state involvement in the economy, with most leading companies now being privately owned; state ownership now dominates only transportation, defence and broadcasting.[183] Policies aimed at promoting economic dynamism and privatisation have improved France's economic standing globally: it is among the world's 10 most innovative countries in the 2020 Bloomberg Innovation Index,[184] and the 15th most competitive, according to the 2019 Global Competitiveness Report (up two places from 2018).[185]
The Paris stock exchange (French: La Bourse de Paris) is one of the oldest in the world, created in 1724.[186] In 2000, it merged with counterparts in Amsterdam and Brussels to form Euronext,[187] which in 2007 merged with the New York stock exchange to form NYSE Euronext, the world's largest stock exchange.[187]Euronext Paris, the French branch of NYSE Euronext, is Europe's second-largest stock exchange market. Some examples of the most valuable French companies include LVMH, L'Oréal and Sociéte Générale.[188]
France has historically been one of the world's major agricultural centres and remains a "global agricultural powerhouse"; France is the world's sixth-biggest exporter of agricultural products, generating a trade surplus of over €7.4 billion.[189][190] Nicknamed "the granary of the old continent",[191] over half its total land area is farmland, of which 45 per cent is devoted to permanent field crops such as cereals. The country's diverse climate, extensive arable land, modern farming technology, and EU subsidies have made it Europe's leading agricultural producer and exporter.[192]
France has 52 sites inscribed in UNESCO's World Heritage List and features cities of high cultural interest, beaches and seaside resorts, ski resorts, as well as rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity (green tourism). Small and picturesque French villages are promoted through the association Les Plus Beaux Villages de France (literally "The Most Beautiful Villages of France"). The "Remarkable Gardens" label is a list of the over 200 gardens classified by the Ministry of Culture. This label is intended to protect and promote remarkable gardens and parks. France attracts many religious pilgrims on their way to St. James, or to Lourdes, a town in the Hautes-Pyrénées that hosts several million visitors a year.
France is the world's tenth-largest producer of electricity.[199]Électricité de France (EDF), which is majority-owned by the French government, is the country's main producer and distributor of electricity, and one of the world's largest electric utility companies, ranking third in revenue globally.[200] In 2018, EDF produced around one-fifth of the European Union's electricity, primarily from nuclear power.[201] As of 2021, France was the biggest energy exporter in Europe, mostly to the U.K. and Italy,[202] and the largest net exporter of electricity in the world.[202]
Since the 1973 oil crisis, France has pursued a strong policy of energy security,[202] namely through heavy investment in nuclear energy. It is one of 32 countries with nuclear power plants, ranking second in the world by the number of operational nuclear reactors, at 56.[203] Consequently, 70% of France's electricity is generated by nuclear power, the highest proportion in the world by a wide margin;[204] only Slovakia and Ukraine also derive a majority of electricity from nuclear power, at roughly 53% and 51%, respectively.[205] France is considered a world leader in nuclear technology, with reactors and fuel products being major exports.[202]
France's significant reliance on nuclear power has resulted in comparatively slower development of renewable energy sources than in other Western nations. Nevertheless, between 2008 and 2019, France's production capacity from renewable energies rose consistently and nearly doubled.[206]Hydropower is by far the leading source, accounting for over half the country's renewable energy sources[207] and contributing 13% of its electricity,[206] the highest proportion in Europe after Norway and Turkey.[207] As with nuclear power, most hydroelectric plants, such as Eguzon, Étang de Soulcem, and Lac de Vouglans, are managed by EDF.[207] France aims to further expand hydropower into 2040.[206]
France's railway network, which stretches 29,473 kilometres (18,314 mi) as of 2008,[209] is the second most extensive in Western Europe after Germany.[210] It is operated by the SNCF, and high-speed trains include the Thalys, the Eurostar and TGV, which travels at 320 km/h (199 mph).[211] The Eurostar, along with the Eurotunnel Shuttle, connects with the United Kingdom through the Channel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in Europe except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed, with most major cities having underground or tramway services complementing bus services.
There are approximately 1,027,183 kilometres (638,262 mi) of serviceable roadway in France, ranking it the most extensive network of the European continent.[212] The Paris Region is enveloped with the densest network of roads and highways, which connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighbouring Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Andorra and Monaco. There is no annual registration fee or road tax; however, usage of the mostly privately owned motorways is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as Renault, Peugeot and Citroën.[213] France possesses the Millau Viaduct, the world's tallest bridge,[214] and has built many important bridges such as the Pont de Normandie. Diesel and petrol-driven cars and lorries cause a large part of the country's air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.[215][216]
There are 464 airports in France.[84]Charles de Gaulle Airport, located in the vicinity of Paris, is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world. Air France is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in Marseille,[217] which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea.[218] 12,261 kilometres (7,619 mi) of waterways traverse France including the Canal du Midi, which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the Garonne river.[84]
France is an outlier among developed countries, particularly in Europe, for its relatively high rate of natural population growth: By birth rates alone, it was responsible for almost all natural population growth in the European Union in 2006.[229] Between 2006 and 2016, France saw the second-highest overall increase in population in the EU and was one of only four EU countries where natural births accounted for the most population growth.[230] This was the highest rate since the end of the baby boom in 1973 and coincides with the rise of the total fertility rate from a nadir of 1.7 in 1994 to 2.0 in 2010.
As of January 2021[update], the fertility rate declined slightly to 1.84 children per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1, and considerably below the high of 4.41 in 1800.[231][232][233][234] France's fertility rate and crude birth rate nonetheless remain among the highest in the EU. However, like many developed nations, the French population is aging; the average age is 41.7 years, while about a fifth of French people are 65 or over.[235] The life expectancy at birth is 82.7 years, the 12th highest in the world.
From 2006 to 2011, population growth averaged 0.6 per cent per year;[236] since 2011, annual growth has been between 0.4 and 0.5 per cent annually.[237] Immigrants are major contributors to this trend; in 2010, 27 per cent of newborns in metropolitan France had at least one foreign-born parent and another 24 per cent had at least one parent born outside Europe (excluding French overseas territories).[238]
France is a highly urbanised country, with its largest cities (in terms of metropolitan area population in 2021[239]) being Paris (13,171,056 inh.), Lyon (2,308,818), Marseille (1,888,788), Lille (1,521,660), Toulouse (1,490,640), Bordeaux (1,393,764), Nantes (1,031,953), Strasbourg (864,993), Montpellier (823,120), and Rennes (771,320). (Note: since its 2020 revision of metropolitan area borders, INSEE considers that Nice is a metropolitan area separate from the Cannes-Antibes metropolitan area; these two combined would have a population of 1,019,905, as of the 2021 census). Rural flight was a perennial political issue throughout most of the 20th century.
Historically, French people were mainly of Celtic-Gallic origin, with a significant admixture of Italic (Romans) and Germanic (Franks) groups reflecting centuries of respective migration and settlement.[240] Through the course of the Middle Ages, France incorporated various neighbouring ethnic and linguistic groups, as evidenced by Breton elements in the west, Aquitanian in the southwest, Scandinavian in the northwest, Alemannic in the northeast, and Ligurian in the southeast.
Large-scale immigration over the last century and a half have led to a more multicultural society; beginning with the French Revolution, and further codified in the French Constitution of 1958, the government is prohibited from collecting data on ethnicity and ancestry; most demographic information is drawn from private sector organisations or academic institutions. In 2004, the Institut Montaigne estimated that within Metropolitan France, 51 million people were White (85% of the population), 6 million were Northwest African (10%), 2 million were Black (3.3%), and 1 million were Asian (1.7%).[241][242]
It is currently estimated that 40% of the French population is descended at least partially from the different waves of immigration since the early 20th century;[253] between 1921 and 1935 alone, about 1.1 million net immigrants came to France.[254] The next largest wave came in the 1960s when around 1.6 million pieds noirs returned to France following the independence of its Northwest African possessions, Algeria and Morocco.[255][256] They were joined by numerous former colonial subjects from North and West Africa, as well as numerous European immigrants from Spain and Portugal.
France remains a major destination for immigrants, accepting about 200,000 legal immigrants annually.[257] In 2005, it was Western Europe's leading recipient of asylum seekers, with an estimated 50,000 applications (albeit a 15% decrease from 2004).[258] In 2010, France received about 48,100 asylum applications—placing it among the top five asylum recipients in the world.[259] In subsequent years it saw the number of applications increase, ultimately doubling to 100,412 in 2017.[260] The European Union allows free movement between the member states, although France established controls to curb Eastern European migration.[citation needed] Foreigners' rights are established in the Code of Entry and Residence of Foreigners and of the Right to Asylum. Immigration remains a contentious political issue.[261]
In 2008, the INSEE (National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies) estimated that the total number of foreign-born immigrants was around 5 million (8% of the population), while their French-born descendants numbered 6.5 million, or 11% of the population. Thus, nearly a fifth of the country's population were either first or second-generation immigrants, of which more than 5 million were of European origin and 4 million of Maghrebi ancestry.[262][263][264] In 2008, France granted citizenship to 137,000 persons, mostly from Morocco, Algeria and Turkey.[265] In 2022, more than 320,000 migrants came to France, with the majority coming from Africa.[266]
In 2014, the INSEE reported a significant increase in the number of immigrants coming from Spain, Portugal and Italy between 2009 and 2012. According to the institute, this increase resulted from the financial crisis that hit several European countries in that period.[267] Statistics on Spanish immigrants in France show a growth of 107 per cent between 2009 and 2012, with the population growing from 5,300 to 11,000.[267] Of the total of 229,000 foreigners coming to France in 2012, nearly 8% were Portuguese, 5% British, 5% Spanish, 4% Italian, 4% German, 3% Romanian, and 3% Belgian.[267]
The official language of France is French,[268] a Romance language derived from Latin. Since 1635, the Académie française has been France's official authority on the French language, although its recommendations carry no legal weight. There are also regional languages spoken in France, such as Occitan, Breton, Catalan, Flemish (Dutch dialect), Alsatian (German dialect), Basque, and Corsican (Italian dialect). Italian was the official language of Corsica until 9 May 1859.[269]
The Government of France does not regulate the choice of language in publications by individuals, but the use of French is required by law in commercial and workplace communications. In addition to mandating the use of French in the territory of the Republic, the French government tries to promote French in the European Union and globally through institutions such as the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Besides French, there exist 77 vernacular minority languages of France, eight spoken in French metropolitan territory and 69 in the French overseas territories. It is estimated that between 300 million[270] and 500 million[271] people worldwide can speak French, either as a mother tongue or as a second language.
According to the 2007 Adult Education survey, part of a project by the European Union and carried out in France by the INSEE and based on a sample of 15,350 persons, French was the native language of 87.2% of the total population, or roughly 55.81 million people, followed by Arabic (3.6%, 2.3 million), Portuguese (1.5%, 960,000), Spanish (1.2%, 770,000) and Italian (1.0%, 640,000). Native speakers of other languages made up the remaining 5.2% of the population.[272]
France is a secular country in which freedom of religion is a constitutional right. The French policy on religion is based on the concept of laïcité, a strict separation of church and state under which the government and public life are kept completely secular, detached from any religion. The region of Alsace and Moselle is an exception to the general French norm since the local law stipulates official status and state funding for Lutheranism, Catholicism, and Judaism. [273]
Catholicism has been the main religion in France for more than a millennium, and it was once the country's state religion.[274] France was traditionally considered the Church's eldest daughter (French: Fille aînée de l'Église), and the King of France always maintained close links to the Pope,[275] receiving the title Most Christian Majesty from the Pope in 1464.[276] However, the French monarchy maintained a significant degree of autonomy, namely through its policy of "Gallicanism", whereby the king selected bishops rather than the papacy.[277] Its role nowadays, however, has been greatly reduced, although, as of 2012, among the 47,000 religious buildings in France 94% were still Catholic churches.[278] After alternating between royal and secular republican governments during the 19th century, in 1905 France passed the 1905 law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, which established the aforementioned principle of laïcité.[279]
The government is prohibited from recognising specific rights to any religious community (with the exception of legacy statutes like those of military chaplains and the aforementioned local law in Alsace-Moselle). It recognises religious organisations according to formal legal criteria that do not address religious doctrine, and religious organisations are expected to refrain from intervening in policymaking.[280] Some religious groups, such as Scientology, the Children of God, the Unification Church, and the Order of the Solar Temple, are considered cults (sectes in French, which is considered a pejorative term[281]) in France, and therefore they are not granted the same status as recognised religions.[282]
The French health care system is one of universal health care largely financed by government national health insurance. In its 2000 assessment of world health care systems, the World Health Organization found that France provided the "close to best overall health care" in the world.[284] The French health care system was ranked first worldwide by the World Health Organization in 1997.[285][286] In 2011, France spent 11.6% of its GDP on health care, or US$4,086 per capita,[287] a figure much higher than the average spent by countries in Europe. Approximately 77% of health expenditures are covered by government-funded agencies.[288]
Care is generally free for people affected by chronic diseases (affections de longues durées) such as cancer, AIDS or cystic fibrosis. The life expectancy at birth is 78 years for men and 85 years for women.[289][290] There are 3.22 physicians for every 1000 inhabitants in France,[291] and average health care spending per capita was US$4,719 in 2008.[292]
As of 2007[update], approximately 140,000 inhabitants (0.4%) of France are living with HIV/AIDS.[84]
In 1802, Napoleon created the lycée, the second and final stage of secondary education that prepares students for higher education studies or a profession.[294]Jules Ferry is considered the father of the French modern school, leading reforms in the late 19th century that established free, secular and compulsory education (currently mandatory until the age of 16).[295][296]
French education is centralised and divided into three stages: primary, secondary, and higher education. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, ranked France's education as near the OECD average in 2018.[297][298] France was one of the PISA-participating countries where school children perceived some of the lowest levels of support and feedback from their teachers.[298] Schoolchildren in France reported greater concern about the disciplinary climate and behaviour in classrooms compared to other OECD countries.[298]
The origins of French art were very much influenced by Flemish art and by Italian art at the time of the Renaissance. Jean Fouquet, the most famous medieval French painter, is said to have been the first to travel to Italy and experience the Early Renaissance firsthand. The Renaissance painting School of Fontainebleau was directly inspired by Italian painters such as Primaticcio and Rosso Fiorentino, who both worked in France. Two of the most famous French artists of the time of the Baroque era, Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, lived in Italy.
There are many art museums in France, the most famous of which being the state-owned Musée du Louvre, which collects artwork from the 18th century and earlier. The Musée d'Orsay was inaugurated in 1986 in the old railway station Gare d'Orsay, in a major reorganisation of national art collections, to gather French paintings from the second part of the 19th century (mainly Impressionism and Fauvism movements).[304][305] It was voted the best museum in the world in 2018.[306] Modern works are presented in the Musée National d'Art Moderne, which moved in 1976 to the Centre Georges Pompidou. These three state-owned museums are visited by close to 17 million people a year.[307]
During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. Some French castles that survived are Chinon, Château d'Angers, the massive Château de Vincennes and the so-called Cathar castles. During this era, France had been using Romanesque architecture like most of Western Europe.
Gothic architecture, originally named Opus Francigenum meaning "French work",[308] was born in Île-de-France and was the first French style of architecture to be imitated throughout Europe.[309] Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the Saint Denis Basilica (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are Notre-Dame de Chartres and Notre-Dame d'Amiens. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church: Notre-Dame de Reims.[310]
The final victory in the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of the French Renaissance and several artists from Italy were invited to the French court; many residential palaces were built in the Loire Valley, from 1450 as a first reference the Château de Montsoreau.[311] Examples of such residential castles include the Château de Chambord, the Château de Chenonceau, or the Château d'Amboise.
Following the Renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, Baroque architecture replaced the traditional Gothic style. However, in France, Baroque architecture found greater success in the secular domain than in the religious one.[312] In the secular domain, the Palace of Versailles has many Baroque features. Jules Hardouin Mansart, who designed the extensions to Versailles, was one of the most influential French architects of the Baroque era; he is famous for his dome at Les Invalides.[313] Some of the most impressive provincial Baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as Place Stanislas in Nancy. On the military architectural side, Vauban designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can be found all over Europe, the Americas, Russia and Turkey.[314][315]
After the Revolution, the Republicans favoured Neoclassicism although it was introduced in France before the revolution with such buildings as the Parisian Pantheon or the Capitole de Toulouse. Built during the first French Empire, the Arc de Triomphe and Sainte Marie-Madeleine represent the best example of Empire-style architecture.[316] Under Napoleon III, a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth; extravagant buildings such as the neo-Baroque Palais Garnier were built. The urban planning of the time was very organised and rigorous; most notably, Haussmann's renovation of Paris. The architecture associated with this era is named Second Empire in English, the term being taken from the Second French Empire. At this time there was a strong Gothic resurgence across Europe and in France; the associated architect was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. In the late 19th century, Gustave Eiffel designed many bridges, such as the Garabit viaduct, and remains one of the most influential bridge designers of his time, although he is best remembered for the Eiffel Tower.
In the 20th century, French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier designed several buildings in France. More recently, French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The Louvre Pyramid is an example of modern architecture added to an older building. The most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris, since 1977, new buildings had to be under 37 metres (121 ft).[317] France's largest financial district is La Défense, where a significant number of skyscrapers are located.[318] Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; an example of the way this has been done is the Millau Viaduct. Some famous modern French architects include Jean Nouvel, Dominique Perrault, Christian de Portzamparc and Paul Andreu.
The earliest French literature dates from the Middle Ages when what is now known as modern France did not have a single, uniform language. There were several languages and dialects, and writers used their own spelling and grammar. Some authors of French medieval texts, such as Tristan and Iseult and Lancelot-Grail are unknown. Three famous medieval authors are Chrétien de Troyes, Christine de Pizan (langue d'oïl), and Duke William IX of Aquitaine (langue d'oc). Much medieval French poetry and literature was inspired by the legends of the Carolingian cycle, such as the Song of Roland and the chansons de geste. The Roman de Renart, written in 1175 by Perrout de Saint Cloude, tells the story of the medieval character Reynard ('the Fox') and is another example of early French writing. An important 16th-century writer was François Rabelais, who wrote five popular early picaresque novels. Rabelais was also in regular communication with Marguerite de Navarre, author of the Heptameron.[319] Another 16th-century author was Michel de Montaigne, whose most famous work, Essais, started a literary genre.[320]
In the early 20th century France was a haven for literary freedom.[325] Works banned for obscenity in the US, the UK and other Anglophone nations were published in France decades before they were available in the respective authors' home countries.[325] The French were disinclined to punish literary figures for their writing, and prosecutions were rare.[325] Important writers of the 20th century include Marcel Proust, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Jean Cocteau, Albert Camus, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Antoine de Saint-Exupéry wrote The Little Prince, which is one of the best selling books in history.[326][327]
France has a long and varied musical history. It experienced a golden age in the 17th century thanks to Louis XIV, who employed talented musicians and composers in the royal court. Composers of this period include Marc-Antoine Charpentier, François Couperin, Michel-Richard Delalande, Jean-Baptiste Lully and Marin Marais, all of them composers at the court. After the death of the "Roi Soleil", French musical creation lost dynamism, but in the next century the music of Jean-Philippe Rameau reached some prestige.[citation needed] Rameau became the dominant composer of French opera and the leading French composer of the harpsichord.[335]
France has historical and strong links with cinema, with two Frenchmen, Auguste and Louis Lumière (known as the Lumière Brothers) credited with creating cinema in 1895.[348] The world's first female filmmaker, Alice Guy-Blaché, was also from France.[349] Several important cinematic movements, including the late 1950s and 1960s Nouvelle Vague, began in the country. It is noted for having a strong film industry, due in part to protections afforded by the government. France remains a leader in filmmaking, as of 2015[update] producing more films than any other European country.[350][351] The nation also hosts the Cannes Festival, one of the most important and famous film festivals in the world.[352][353]
Apart from its strong and innovative film tradition, France has also been a gathering spot for artists from across Europe and the world. For this reason, French cinema is sometimes intertwined with the cinema of foreign nations. Directors from nations such as Poland (Roman Polanski, Krzysztof Kieślowski, Andrzej Żuławski), Argentina (Gaspar Noé, Edgardo Cozarinsky), Russia (Alexandre Alexeieff, Anatole Litvak), Austria (Michael Haneke) and Georgia (Géla Babluani, Otar Iosseliani) are prominent in the ranks of French cinema. Conversely, French directors have had prolific and influential careers in other countries, such as Luc Besson, Jacques Tourneur or Francis Veber in the United States. Although the French film market is dominated by Hollywood, France is the only nation in the world where American films make up the smallest share of total film revenues, at 50%, compared with 77% in Germany and 69% in Japan.[354] French films account for 35% of the total film revenues of France, which is the highest percentage of national film revenues in the developed world outside the United States, compared to 14% in Spain and 8% in the UK.[354] In 2013 France was the second greatest exporter of films in the world, after the United States.[355]
As part of its advocacy of cultural exception, a political concept of treating culture differently from other commercial products,[356] France succeeded in convincing all EU members to refuse to include culture and audiovisuals in the list of liberalised sectors of the WTO in 1993.[357] Moreover, this decision was confirmed in a vote by UNESCO in 2005: the principle of "cultural exception" won an overwhelming victory with 198 countries voting for it and only 2 countries, the United States and Israel, voting against it.[358]
Fashion has been an important industry and cultural export of France since the 17th century, and modern "haute couture" originated in Paris in the 1860s. Today, Paris, along with London, Milan, and New York City, is considered one of the world's fashion capitals, and the city is home or headquarters to many of the premier fashion houses. The expression Haute couture is, in France, a legally protected name, guaranteeing certain quality standards.
The association of France with fashion and style (French: la mode) dates largely to the reign of Louis XIV[359] when the luxury goods industries in France came increasingly under royal control and the French royal court became, arguably, the arbiter of taste and style in Europe. But France renewed its dominance of the high fashion (French: couture or haute couture) industry in the years 1860–1960 through the establishment of the great couturier houses such as Chanel, Dior, and Givenchy. The French perfume industry is the world leader in its sector and is centred on the town of Grasse.[360]
According to 2017 data compiled by Deloitte, Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessey (LVMH), a French brand, is the largest luxury company in the world by sales, selling more than twice the amount of its nearest competitor.[361] Moreover, France also possesses 3 of the top 10 luxury goods companies by sales (LVMH, Kering SA, L'Oréal), more than any other country in the world.[361]
The most influential news magazines are the left-wing Le Nouvel Observateur, centrist L'Express and right-wing Le Point (in 2009 more than 400,000 copies),[365] but the highest circulation numbers for weeklies are attained by TV magazines and by women's magazines, among them Marie Claire and ELLE, which have foreign versions. Influential weeklies also include investigative and satirical papers Le Canard Enchaîné and Charlie Hebdo, as well as Paris Match. As in most industrialised nations, the print media have been affected by a severe crisis with the rise of the internet. In 2008, the government launched a major initiative to help the sector reform and become financially independent,[366][367] but in 2009 it had to give 600,000 euros to help the print media cope with the economic crisis, in addition to existing subsidies.[368]
In 1974, after years of centralised monopoly on radio and television, the governmental agency ORTF was split into several national institutions, but the three already-existing TV channels and four national radio stations[369][370] remained under state control. It was only in 1981 that the government allowed free broadcasting in the territory, ending the state monopoly on radio.[370]
French wines are usually made to accompany French cuisine.
Different regions have different styles. In the north, butter and cream are common ingredients, whereas olive oil is more commonly used in the south.[371] Each region of France has traditional specialties: cassoulet in the southwest, choucroute in Alsace, quiche in the Lorraine region, beef bourguignon in Burgundy, Provençaltapenade, etc. France is most famous for its wines[372] and cheeses, which are often named for the territory where they are produced (AOC).[373][374] A meal typically consists of three courses, entrée ('starter'), plat principal ('main course'), and fromage ('cheese') or dessert, sometimes with a salad served before the cheese or dessert.
French cuisine is also regarded as a key element of the quality of life and the attractiveness of France. A French publication, the Michelin Guide, awards Michelin stars for excellence to a select few establishments.[375][376] The acquisition or loss of a star can have dramatic effects on the success of a restaurant. By 2006, the Michelin Guide had awarded 620 stars to French restaurants.[377]
In addition to its wine tradition, France is also a major producer of beer and rum. The three main French brewing regions are Alsace (60% of national production), Nord-Pas-de-Calais, and Lorraine. French rum is made in distilleries located on islands in the Atlantic and Indian oceans.[378][379]
Both the national football team and the national rugby union team are nicknamed "Les Bleus" in reference to the team's shirt colour as well as the national French tricolour flag. Football is the most popular sport in France, with over 1,800,000 registered players and over 18,000 registered clubs.[393]
The French Open, also called Roland-Garros, is a major tennis tournament held over two weeks between late May and early June at the Stade Roland-Garros in Paris. It is the premier clay court tennis championship event in the world and the second of four annual Grand Slam tournaments.[394]
^The current Constitution of France does not specify a national emblem.[1] The lictor's fasces is very often used to represent the French Republic, although it holds no official status.[2] In addition to the coat of arms, France also uses a different emblem for diplomatic and consular purposes.
^"Field Listing :: Area". Comparateur de territoire. IGN. Retrieved 19 November 2024. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^"Field Listing :: Area". The World Factbook. CIA. Archived from the original on 31 January 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2015. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^Rouche, Michel (1987). "The Early Middle Ages in the West". In Veyne, Paul (ed.). A History of Private Life: From Pagan Rome to Byzantium. Belknap Press. p. 425. ISBN978-0-674-39974-7. OCLC59830199.
^ abcJean Carpentier (dir.), François Lebrun (dir.), Alain Tranoy, Élisabeth Carpentier et Jean-Marie Mayeur (préface de Jacques Le Goff), Histoire de France, Points Seuil, coll. " Histoire ", Paris, 2000 (1re éd. 1987), p. 17 ISBN978-2-02-010879-9
^Michael Clodfelter, Warfare and armed conflicts: a statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1492-2015 (McFarland, 2017) p.40
^Tilly, Charles (1985). "War making and state making as organized crime," in Bringing the State Back In, eds P.B. Evans, D. Rueschemeyer, & T. Skocpol. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. p. 174.
^Cécil Vidal (May 2021). "Slave trade". bnf.fr. Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2023.
^Noir sur Blanc: Les premières photos du camp de concentration de Buchenwald après la libération,"Archived copy"(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 9 November 2014. Retrieved 14 October 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) (French)
^ abMarie-Christine Weidmann-Koop, Rosalie Vermette, "France at the dawn of the twenty-first century, trends and transformations", p. 160
^Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and Michael J. Balz, "The October Riots in France: A Failed Immigration Policy or the Empire Strikes Back?" International Migration (2006) 44#2 pp. 23–34.
^"French policies provoke terrorist attacks". The Matador. 14 December 2015. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2024.; Goodliffe, Gabriel; Brizzi, Riccardo, eds. (2015). France After 2012. Berghahn Books.
^Eia (10 September 2010) [First published: 23 April 2010]. "Energy profile of France". In Cleveland, Cutler J. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Earth. Topic editor: Langdon D. Clough. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
^"The regional nature Parks of France"(PDF). Fédération des Parcs naturels régionaux de France [Federation of the regional nature Parks of France]. 22 July 2013. Archived from the original(PDF) on 22 July 2013. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
^Lafferty, William M. (2001). Sustainable communities in Europe. Earthscan. p. 181. ISBN978-1-85383-791-3.
^"La réforme territoriale" (in French). Government of France. 18 December 2015. Archived from the original on 30 December 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
^"History". Secretariate of the Pacific Community. 12 February 2010. Archived from the original on 28 August 2010.
^"Les pays membres de la COI" [IOC member countries]. Commission de l'Océan Indien | Indian Ocean Commission (in French). Archived from the original on 2 April 2012.
^"84 États et gouvernements" [84 states and governments]. Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Archived from the original on 3 October 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
^Gadault, Thierry (13 June 2002). "La France demeure un fournisseur d'armes de premier plan" [France stays one of the biggest arms supplier]]. L'express (in French). Archived from the original on 11 March 2012. En 2001, la France a vendu pour 1,288 milliard de dollars d'équipements militaires, ce qui la met au troisième rang mondial des exportateurs derrière les États-Unis et la Russie. [In 2001, France sold $1,288 billion of military equipment, ranking 3rd in the world for arms exportations behind the USA and Russia
^"Les ventes d'armes explosent en 2009" [Sales of weapons explode in 2009]. 20 minutes (in French). 8 February 2010. Archived from the original on 7 December 2016. Retrieved 6 January 2017. La France est au 4ème rang mondial des exportateurs d'armes, derrière les Etats-Unis, le Royaume-Uni et la Russie, et devant Israël, selon un rapport du ministère de la Défense publié l'an dernier. [France is 4th biggest arms exporter, behind the United States, the United Kingdom and Russia, and ahead of Israel, according to a report of the Ministry of Defense published a year ago.]
^In European countries, legal doctrine has long faced the question of succession of criminal laws in time: Buonomo, Giampiero (2015). "La rivendicazione di Gallo". Mondoperaio Edizione Online.
^"France: Strict Defamation and Privacy Laws Limit Free Expression – Index on Censorship| Index on Censorship." France: Strict Defamation and Privacy Laws Limit Free Expression – Index on Censorship| Index on Censorship. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 February 2014. "France: Strict defamation and privacy laws limit free expression – Index on Censorship". Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2014..
^Vautherot, Audrey (19 November 2007). "La Bourse de Paris : une institution depuis 1724" [The Paris Stock Exchange: an institution since 1724]. Gralon (in French). Archived from the original on 8 September 2011. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
^"Key figures of the French economy". France Diplomatie. French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs. Archived from the original on 14 January 2010. France is the world's fifth largest exporter of goods (mainly durables). The country ranks fourth in services and third in agriculture (especially in cereals and the agri-food sector). It is the leading producer and exporter of farm products in Europe.
^"France". IAEA | PRIS Power Reactor Information System. International Atomic Energy Agency. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
^André Thuilier, Histoire de l'université de Paris et de la Sorbonne, Paris, Nouvelle librairie de France, 1994
^Burke, Peter, A social history of knowledge: from Gutenberg to Diderot, Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2000, p. 17
^Lanzetta M; Petruzzo P; Dubernard JM; et al. (July 2007). "Second report (1998–2006) of the International Registry of Hand and Composite Tissue Transplantation". Transpl Immunol. 18 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1016/j.trim.2007.03.002. PMID17584595.
^Dr. Ghodoussi. "Media Collection". Interface Surgical Technologies, LLC. Archived from the original on 18 February 2024. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
^Oppenheimer, David B. (2008). "Why France needs to collect data on racial identity...in a French way". Hastings International and Comparative Law Review. 31 (2): 735–752. SSRN1236362.
^"Les personnes d'origine maghrébine y sont également au nombre de 5 à 6 millions; 3,5 millions ont la nationalité française (don't 500 000 harkis)", Évelyne Perrin, Identité Nationale, Amer Ministère, L'Harmattan, 2010, p. 112 ISBN978-2-296-10839-4
^Hassell, James E. (1991). "III. French Government and the Refugees". Russian Refugees in France and the United States Between the World Wars. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 81/7. American Philosophical Society. p. 22. ISBN978-0-87169-817-9.
^Catherine Borrel; Bertrand Lhommeau (30 March 2010). "Être né en France d'un parent immigré" [To be born in France of an immigrant parent] (in French). Insee. Archived from the original on 3 February 2012.
^Wolf, John Baptiste Wolf (1962). The Emergence of European Civilization: From the Middle Ages to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century. University of Virginia Press. p. 419. ISBN9789733203162.
^Parisse, Michael (2005). "Lotharingia". In Reuter, T. (ed.). The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 900–c. 1024. Vol. III. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 313–315.
^Wolfe, M. (2005). Jotham Parsons. The Church in the Republic: Gallicanism and Political Ideology in Renaissance France. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press. 2004. pp. ix, 322. The American Historical Review, 110(4), 1254–1255.
^"Observatoire du patrimoine religieux". 1 February 2012. Archived from the original on 26 November 2013. 94% des édifices sont catholiques (dont 50% églises paroissiales, 25% chapelles, 25% édifices appartenant au clergé régulier)
^(in French) Ministry of Tourism, Sites touristiques en FranceArchived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine page 2 "Palmarès des 30 premiers sites culturels (entrées comptabilisées)" [Ranking of 30 most visited cultural sites in France]
^(in French) Claude Lébedel – Les Splendeurs du Baroque en France: Histoire et splendeurs du baroque en France page 9: "Si en allant plus loin, on prononce les mots 'art baroque en France', on provoque alors le plus souvent une moue interrogative, parfois seulement étonnée, parfois franchement réprobatrice: Mais voyons, l'art baroque n'existe pas en France!"
^Bauschatz, Cathleen M. (2003). "Rabelais and Marguerite de Navarre on Sixteenth-Century Views of Clandestine Marriage". Sixteenth Century Journal. 34 (2): 395–408. doi:10.2307/20061415. JSTOR20061415. S2CID163972746.
^"Montaigne". Humanistictexts.org. Archived from the original on 25 May 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
^Girdlestone, Cuthbert (1969). Jean-Philippe Rameau: His Life and Work (paperback ed.). Dover. p. 14: "It is customary to couple him with Couperin as one couples Haydn with Mozart or Ravel with Debussy."
^"100人の偉大なアーティスト - No. 62" [The 100 Greatest Artists – No. 62]. ローチケHMV [Roachke HMV] (in Japanese). 21 April 2003.
^"Biography of Noir Désir". rfi Music. RFI Musique. December 2010. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2018. Rock music doesn't come naturally to the French. A Latin country, with more affinity to poetry and melody, France has very rarely produced talented rock musicians. Rock music has other, more Anglo-Saxon ingredients: fury, excess, electricity.
Stephanie PoetriPoetri, di tahun 2021LahirStephanie Poetri Dougharty20 Mei 2000 (umur 23)Jakarta, IndonesiaNama lainStephanie PoetriPekerjaanPenyanyiAktrisOrang tuaAndrew Hollis Dougharty (bapak)Titi DJ (ibu)Karier musikGenrePopInstrumenVokalTahun aktif2015–sekarangLabel88risingTrinity Optima ProductionAquarius MusikindoArtis terkaitRich BrianNIKI Stephanie Poetri Dougharty (lahir 20 Mei 2000) atau lebih dikenal sebagai Stephanie Poetri, adalah seorang penyanyi Indonesia. Ia meru...
Carex meadii Klasifikasi ilmiah Kerajaan: Plantae Divisi: Tracheophyta Kelas: Liliopsida Ordo: Poales Famili: Cyperaceae Genus: Carex Spesies: Carex meadii Nama binomial Carex meadiiDewey Carex meadii adalah spesies tumbuhan seperti rumput yang tergolong ke dalam famili Cyperaceae. Spesies ini juga merupakan bagian dari ordo Poales. Spesies Carex meadii sendiri merupakan bagian dari genus Carex.[1] Nama ilmiah dari spesies ini pertama kali diterbitkan oleh Dewey. Referensi ^ Carex. T...
Dalam nama Korean ini, nama keluarganya adalah Kim. Kim Do-ahKim Do-ah in 2019Lahir4 Desember 2003 (umur 20)Distrik Seongdong, Seoul, Korea SelatanPendidikanSchool of Performing Arts SeoulPekerjaanPenyanyirapperpemeranKarier musikGenreK-popInstrumenVocalsTahun aktif2018–sekarangLabelFENTFascinoNama KoreaHangul김도아 Hanja金鍍我 Alih AksaraGim Do-aMcCune–ReischauerKim Toa Kim Do-ah (Korea: 김도아code: ko is deprecated , lahir 4 Desember 2003), juga lebih dikenal dengan nama D...
Gaya atau nada penulisan artikel ini tidak mengikuti gaya dan nada penulisan ensiklopedis yang diberlakukan di Wikipedia. Bantulah memperbaikinya berdasarkan panduan penulisan artikel. (Pelajari cara dan kapan saatnya untuk menghapus pesan templat ini) Huria Kristen Indonesia Protestan (The Indonesian Christian Protestant Chruch)PenggolonganProtestanPemimpinBishop Pdt. Marlan Pardede, S.Pd., M.ThWilayahIndonesiaDidirikan1992; 32 tahun lalu (1992) Sumatera UtaraTerpisah dariHuria Kristen ...
January 2010 earthquake in California 2010 California earthquake redirects here. For the April earthquake affecting Southern California, see 2010 Baja California earthquake. 2010 Eureka earthquakeSanta CruzRenoEurekaUTC time2010-01-10 00:27:41ISC event14223208USGS-ANSSComCatLocal dateJanuary 9, 2010 (2010-01-09)Local time16:27:38 PSTDuration~10 seconds at King Salmon[1]Magnitude6.5 Mw[2]Depth13.5 miles (21.7 km)Epicenter40°39′N 124°4...
Legal aid and advocacy organization in the US NicknameTULDFFormation2018 (6 years ago)FoundersRoberta Kaplan, Tina Tchen, Fatima Goss GravesLocationWashington, D.C., United StatesWebsiteWebsite TIME'S UP Legal Defense Fund is an organization headquartered in Washington, DC, that provides legal and media support to individuals who have been subject to workplace sexual harassment. The Fund is housed and administered by the National Women's Law Center (NWLC), a 501(c)3 non-profit organizati...
Simon Crean Pemimpin OposisiMasa jabatan22 November 2001 – 2 Desember 2003Perdana MenteriJohn HowardWakilJenny MacklinPendahuluKim BeazleyPenggantiMark LathamKetua Partai BuruhMasa jabatan22 November 2001 – 2 Desember 2003WakilJenny MacklinPendahuluKim BeazleyPenggantiMark LathamWakil Ketua Partai BuruhMasa jabatan19 Oktober 1998 – 22 November 2001PemimpinKim BeazleyPendahuluGareth EvansPenggantiJenny MacklinMenteri Pembangunan Regional dan Pemerintahan LokalM...
L'Uomo Ragnoserie TV d'animazione Immagine che compare all'inizio di ogni episodio Titolo orig.Spider-Man Lingua orig.inglese PaeseStati Uniti, Canada AutoreStan Lee RegiaGrant Simmons, Clyde Geronimi, Sid Marcus SceneggiaturaRalph Bakshi, Steve Ditko MusicheBob Harris Spider-Man theme, Ray Ellis musical score, Paul Francis Webster parole StudioGrantlay Lawrence Animation, Famous Studios, Marvel Enterprises, Krantz Films ReteABC 1...
Marshall McLuhanLahirHerbert Marshall McLuhan(1911-07-21)21 Juli 1911Edmonton, Alberta, KanadaMeninggal31 Desember 1980(1980-12-31) (umur 69)Toronto, Ontario, KanadaAliranTeori media, Teori Sekolah Komunikasi TorontoMinat utamaMedia komunikasi, media massa, sensorium, Kritisme BaruGagasan pentingMedia adalah pesan, desa global, sosok dan latar media, tetrad dampak media, media panas dan dingin Dipengaruhi Harold Innis, Eric A. Havelock, Thomas Nashe, G. K. Chesterton, I. A. Ri...
New York City Subway service CC (New York City Subway service) redirects here. For the shuttle service that also carried the CC designation, see Rockaway Park Shuttle. New York City Subway serviceEighth Avenue Local168th Street-bound C train of R179s at West Fourth StreetNorthern end168th StreetSouthern endEuclid AvenueStations40Rolling stockR46R179R211T[1][2](Rolling stock assignments subject to change)Depot207th Street Yard Pitkin YardStarted serviceSeptember&...
Äldre valurna från Norge Representativ demokrati avser ett system där folket styr genom val av partier eller företrädare med beslutanderätt. Representativ demokrati kan också ses som en samlingsbeteckning för en mängd demokratiska modeller. Gemensamt för dessa är dock att kärnan består av regelbundet återkommande val mellan konkurrerande representanter. Folksuveräniteten åstadkoms genom att medborgarna påverkar styret genom att rösta i dessa val. Den är den absolut mest spr...
Questa voce sull'argomento politici italiani è solo un abbozzo. Contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di Wikipedia. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Aldo Loreti Sindaco di Ascoli PicenoDurata mandato6 maggio 1987 –13 novembre 1987 PredecessoreGianni Forlini SuccessoreAmedeo Ciccanti Dati generaliPartito politicoPartito Socialista Democratico Italiano Aldo Loreti (Ascoli Piceno, 25 ottobre 1920 – 4 gennaio 1992) è stato un politico it...
The fresco in the Vilnius Cathedral, dating to the Christianization of Lithuania The Christianization of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos krikštas) occurred in 1387, initiated by King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Jogaila and his cousin Vytautas the Great. It signified the official adoption of Catholic Christianity by Lithuania, the last pagan country in Europe.[1] This event ended one of the most complicated and lengthiest processes of Christianization in European history. H...
Web portal and internet service providerAn editor has nominated this article for deletion.You are welcome to participate in the deletion discussion, which will decide whether or not to retain it.Feel free to improve the article, but do not remove this notice before the discussion is closed. For more information, see the guide to deletion.Find sources: Atala T – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR%5B%5BWikipedia%3AArticles+for+deletion%2FAtala+T...
Questa voce sull'argomento Turkmenistan è solo un abbozzo. Contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di Wikipedia. Mappa del Turkmenistan Lista di città del Turkmenistan, nazione dell'Asia. Lista Lista di città con oltre 15.000 abitanti: Abadan Akdepe Anau Atamurat Aşgabat Baharly Balkanabat Baýramaly Bereket Boldumsaz Daşoguz Farap Gazojak Gubadag Gumdag Guliston Gurbansoltan Eje Gökdepe Hazar Kaká Konye-Urgench Mary Murgap Saýat Serdar Serhetabat Seýdi Görogly Tejen...
1998 box set by Miles DavisThe Complete Studio Recordings of The Miles Davis Quintet 1965–1968Box set by Miles DavisReleased24 March 1998RecordedJanuary 20, 1965 – June 21, 1968 (1965-01-20 – 1968-06-21)GenreJazz, post-bop, jazz fusionLength7:19:07LabelColumbia/LegacyThe Miles Davis Series chronology (Box 3) Seven Steps: The Complete Columbia Recordings of Miles Davis 1963–1964(2004) The Complete Studio Recordings of The Miles Davis Quintet 1...
Chastel Chastel Hành chính Quốc gia Pháp Vùng Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes Tỉnh Haute-Loire Quận Brioude Tổng Pinols Xã (thị) trưởng Emmanuel Mallet Thống kê Độ cao 711–1.359 m (2.333–4.459 ft)(bình quân 900 m (3.000 ft)[chuyển đổi: tùy chọn không hợp lệ]) Diện tích đất1 27,69 km2 (10,69 dặm vuông Anh) Nhân khẩu2 116 (2007) - Mật độ 4/km2 (10/sq mi) INSEE/Mã bưu chính 43...
![Coat of arms[I] of France](File:Arms_of_the_French_Republic.svg)
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_EPP_Summit_Brussels,_March_2019_(46712419984)_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
_underway_on_24_April_2019_(190424-M-BP588-1005).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
