Mi'kma'ki
Mi'kma'ki, also spelled Mi'gma'gi, is composed of the traditional and current territories, or country, of the Mi'kmaq people, located in Wabanakia, or the Dawnland region, along the east coast of Turtle Island (North America). Protected by the Peace and Friendship Treaties signed with the British Crown, the territories of Mi'kma'ki overlap with the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and eastern Quebec.[4] The Mi'kmaw homeland is sub-divided into seven geographical and traditional districts with Taqamkuk being separately represented as an eighth district, formerly joined with Unama'ki (Cape Breton).[5][6] Today, governance over the Mi'kmaw Nation is delegated to a number of First Nations, such as Eskasoni and Potlotek First Nations, the latter of which is home to Mniku, the traditional capital, or fire, of the Mi'kmaw country.[7][8] Historically, and to this day, the various Mi'kmaw communities were governed by a centralized council, the Sante' (or Mi'kmawey) Mawio'mi, composed of district chiefs (Saqamaq), a women's council (Saqama'sgw), wampum keepers (Putu's), and headed by a Grand Chief, or Kji Sagamaw, who is today Norman Sylliboy.[6][9] EtymologyThe name "Mi'kma'ki" is composed of two elements: The first makes reference to the Mi'kmaw Nation, whose name comes from the Mi'kmawi'simk word ni’kmaq meaning "my kin-friends".[10] The second element comes from the Algonquian word for "land"—*axkyi in Proto-Algonquian[11]—which can be seen in the name of neighbouring countries like Ndakinna, Nitaskinan, Nitassinan, and Anishinaabewaki, as well as in the name for the Dawnland region, Wapna'ki. Alongside "Mi'kma'ki", there are additional ways to describe the Mi'kmaw homeland. Both "Mi'kmaw homeland"[4] and "Mi'kmaw Country"[12] use the adjectival and singular form of "Mi'kmaq".[13] Within the language, one can also say gm'tginu, as in the example sentence from the Mi'gmaq/Mi'kmaq Online Talking Dictionary: Gm'tginu, mnaq ignmuetug aq mnaq naqtmug! meaning "Our territory, we've never given it away and we've never left it!"[14] HistoryEach district was autonomous, headed by a saqamaw (plural: saqamaq).[15] He would meet with Wampum readers and knowledge keepers called turkey keepers, a women's council, and the Kji Saqamaw, or Grand Chief, to form the Sante' Mawio'mi (or Mi'kmawey Mawio'mi), the Grand Council.[2] The seat of the Sante' Mawio'mi is at Mniku, Unama'kik. It still functions as the capital today in the Potlotek reserve. Following European contact, Mi'kma'ki was colonized by the French as Acadia and the British in modern Nova Scotia, who made competing claims for the land. Siding with the French, the Mi'kmaq fought alongside other Wabanaki warriors during the repeated wars between France and Britain in North America in the 17th and 18th centuries, between 1688 and 1763. These European powers divided Mi'kma'ki in the treaties of Utrecht (1715) and Paris (1763). After the latter, when France ceded its territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain, the British claimed Mi'kma'ki as their possession by conquest. The defeated Mi'kmaq signed the Peace and Friendship Treaties to end hostilities and encourage cooperation between the Wabanaki nations and the British. They wanted to ensure the survival of the Mi'kmaq people, whose numbers had dwindled to a few thousand from disease, starvation, and warfare. The power held within Mi'kma'ki faded further after the Confederation of Canada in 1867 united the colonies, establishing four provinces. The Dominion of Canada passed the Indian Act in 1876, which resulted in the loss of autonomous governance among the First Nations. While the Mi'kmaq had said that they never conceded sovereignty of their traditional lands,[16] some analysts have advanced legal arguments that the Peace and Friendship treaties legitimized the takeover of the land by Britain. For more than 100 years, until 2020, the Sante' Mawio'mi (or Grand Council) was limited to functioning solely as a spiritual and dialogue forum. The Mi'kmaq and other First Nations were required to elect representatives for their federally-imposed band governments. In 2020, however, by agreement with the Government of Canada, the Grand Council was authorized to consult on behalf of the Mi'kmaq First Nations and all First Nations in the province. GovernanceTraditionally each Mi'kmaq district had its own independent government. Those governments were composed of a chief and a council. The council included the band chiefs, elders, and other important leaders. The role of the councils was similar to those of any independent government and included the ability to make laws, establish a justice system, divide the common territory among the people for hunting and fishing, make war, and search for peace. The overarching Grand Council Sante' Mawio'mi is composed of the keptinaq (captains), or the district chiefs. The Grand Council also included elders, putu's (historians reading the wampum belts), and a women's council. The Sante' Mawio'mi was headed by a Kji Sagamaw, or Grand Chief, who was one of the district chiefs, generally the Unama'kik chief, with hereditary succession. The seat of the Grand Council was generally on Unamaꞌkik (Cape Breton Island).[17] DistrictsMi'kma'ki hosts eight administrative divisions called districts, each headed by a keptinaq, or district chief. The eight districts are the following (names are spelled in the Francis-Smith orthography, followed by the Listuguj orthography in parens): LawThe Mi'kmaw legal system is called Netukulimk. It is best defined as "the use of the natural bounty provided by the Creator for the self-support and well-being of the individual and the community. A foundation of Netukulimk is achieving adequate standards of community nutrition and economic well-being without jeopardizing the integrity, diversity, or productivity of our environment."[18] Within the conceptual framework of Netukulimk, Mi'kmaw law functions as the foundation of sustaining Mi'kmaw families, communities, and society.[19] This mindset understands the whole of life to be interconnected, describing the rights and responsibilities of the Mi’kmaq with their families, communities, nation, and eco-system.[20] Currently, Mi'kma'ki is subject to both Canadian law—with its foundations in the English common law system—and Netukulimk. Despite the terms of the Peace and Friendship Treaties outlining a model of co-existence,[21][22] Anglo-Canadian laws increasingly superceded Mi'kmaw law, especially after the passing of the Indian Act and the imposition of Canadian Aboriginal law. Today, Mi'kmaq are working with federal and provincial governments, as well as other organizations and groups, in order to restore the role and place of Netukulimk within Mi'kma'ki. One method of doing so is through a process coined by Elder Albert Marshall called "two-eyed seeing" or etuaptmumk.[23] Etuaptmumk is a concept that stresses the importance of balancing both Mi'kmaw and Canadian worldviews, laws, and wisdom.[23] GeographyMi'kmaw Country is located on the East coast of Turtle Island (North America) where it is surrounded by several bodies of water: the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the Gulf of Maine to the south, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the north. Between the districts of Siknikt, Sipekni'katik, and Kespukwitk lies the Bay of Fundy; Cabot Strait separates the islands of Unama'ki and Ktaqamkuk, with the Strait of Belle Isle separating the latter from the mainland. The continental shelf off Ktaqamkuk is known as the Grand Banks, and it (along with the coast off of Enmigtaqamu'g—the mainland districts of Eskikewa'kik, Sipekni'katik, and Kespukwitk)[24] is where the cold Labrador Current and the warm Gulf Stream meet, making the area not only one of the richest fishing grounds in the world, but also one of the foggiest areas. Today, Mi'kma'ki is better known as Eastern or Atlantic Canada. ClimateMuch of Mi'kma'ki is considered to be a humid continental climate, kept moderate by the ocean, with elevated and northerly regions classified as a subarctic climate. Coastal regions—notably Enmigtaqamu'g, Unama'ki, and Ktaqamkuk—are often subject to coastal fog. The country also faces yearly cyclonic storms referred to as nor'easters.
See alsoReferences
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