The company began operating in February 1996 as Great Western Trains, as part of the privatisation of British Rail. In December 1998, it became First Great Western after FirstGroup bought out its partners' shares in Great Western Holdings. In April 2006, First Great Western, First Great Western Link and Wessex Trains were combined into the new Greater Western franchise and brought under the First Great Western brand. The company adopted its current name and a new livery in September 2015 to coincide with the start of a newly extended contract that was subsequently extended to run until June 2028.
History
An InterCity 125 as operated by the original Great Western Trains franchise in 1996-1998
In March 1998, FirstGroup bought out its partners' stakes to give it 100% ownership.[5][6][7] In December 1998, the franchise was rebranded First Great Western.[8][9]
First Great Western Link operated the Thames Trains franchise from April 2004 until it was absorbed into the Greater Western franchise in 2006.
On 1 April 2006, the Great Western, Great Western Link and Wessex Trains franchises were combined into a new Greater Western franchise. FirstGroup, National Express and Stagecoach were shortlisted to bid for it. On 13 December 2005, it was announced that FirstGroup had won the franchise.[11] Originally, First planned to subdivide its services into three categories based on routes.[12] Following feedback from staff and stakeholders, the decision was taken to re-brand and re-livery all services as 'First Great Western'.[13]
In May 2011, FirstGroup announced that it had decided not to take up the option to extend its franchise beyond the end of March 2013. It stated that, in the light of the £1billion plan to electrify the Great Western route from London via Bristol to Cardiff, it wished to try to negotiate a longer-term deal. CEO Tim O'Toole said: "We believe we are best placed to manage these projects and capture the benefits through a longer-term franchise."[14]
By not taking up the option to extend its original franchise contract for a further three years, FirstGroup avoided having to pay £826.6million to the government; it received extra subsidies totalling £133million from the government in 2010.[15]
In March 2012, Arriva, FirstGroup, National Express and Stagecoach were shortlisted to bid for the new franchise. The winner was expected to be announced in December 2012, with the new franchisee taking over in April 2013.[16] But it was announced in July 2012 that the franchise would be extended, due to the late issue of the invitation to tender (ITT).[17] The ITT ran from the end of July until October 2012. The winner would have been announced in March 2013, and taken on the franchise from 21 July 2013 until the end of July 2028.[18] The new franchise would include the introduction of new Intercity Express Trains, capacity enhancements and smart ticketing.[19] The award of the franchise was again delayed in October 2012, while the Department for Transport (DfT) reviewed the way rail franchises were awarded.
In January 2013, the government announced that the current competition for the franchise had been aborted, and that FirstGroup's contract had been extended until October 2013.[20] A two-year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013,[21][22] and subsequently extended until March 2019.[23][24][25] A further extension to April 2019 was granted in March 2015.[26]
The refurbishment of first-class carriages in 2014 included interiors that featured a new GWR logo,[27] with no First branding. The whole company was rebranded Great Western Railway (GWR) on 20 September 2015,[28] with the introduction of a green livery in recognition of the former Great Western Railway which existed between 1835 and 1947.[29][30] The new livery was introduced when HST interiors were refurbished, and on sleeper carriages and Class 57/6 locomotives.[31]
In March 2020, the DfT awarded a further extension to 31 March 2023.[34][35]
In June 2022, the DfT replaced the franchise agreement with a direct award contract that expires on 25 June 2028, with an option to extend for a further three years.[1]
GWR is one of several train operators impacted by the 2022–2024 United Kingdom railway strikes, which are the first national rail strikes in the UK for three decades.[36] Its workers are amongst those who are participating in industrial action due to a dispute over pay and working conditions.[37]
Alternates with services between Cardiff Central and Taunton and services between Plymouth and Penzance to provide an hourly service between those stations
GWR operates restaurant cars on certain West Country and Wales trains to or from London Paddington. They are available to first-class and standard-class passengers, though only first-class passengers may make advance reservations, and they have priority over seats in the restaurant.[44] Meals in the restaurant car are not included in the price of rail tickets.
First class
First class interior on a GWR Intercity Express Train
GWR has first class on all its long-distance high-speed services. First class on the IETs includes fabric reclining seating with tables at every seat, as well as an at-seat service provided by a customer host on most journeys.[45] Unlike the previous HSTs, the IETs do not have leather first-class seating due to fire regulations.[46] Like the HSTs, there are power sockets and USB charging points at every seat. There is Wi-Fi throughout the first class-carriages, which GWR describes as 'upgraded'.[45]
Standard class
Standard-class interior on a GWR Intercity Express Train
Standard class is provided on all services. Many services on long-distance and regional routes have specific seat reservations.
Trolley service
An at-seat trolley service is scheduled to operate on most IET services, with a trolley in each portion of a ten-coach train. This is different from the HSTs, which had buffet counters branded as 'Express Cafes'.
Performance
Disabled passengers
In July 2018, a disabled woman was threatened by Great Western Railway staff with police action and removal from the train she was travelling in, for using a disabled space for her mobility scooter.[47] Canadian-born comedian Tanyalee Davis, who has a form of dwarfism, said she was humiliated when a Great Western Railway conductor made an announcement that she was "causing problems" which had delayed the train. The incident occurred after a woman travelling with a young child demanded that Davis make way for her pram.[48] GWR said the incident should not have happened and "No one travelling with us should be left feeling like this".[49]
Strike action
In 2015, the imminent arrival of the new Class 800 trains provoked a series of strikes by the RMT union over who has the right to control the doors. First Great Western wanted to replace conductors with driver-only operation (DOO); however, following several discussions it was agreed to keep conductors on all IET services.[50]
Another strike took place in early December 2016 amidst a background of ongoing rail strikes on a national level. The RMT ballotted Servest UK workers employed on an outsourcing contract to GWR as cleaners; the ballot passed in favour of strike action by 98%. A disruptive transfer period in the outsourcing contract, from Mitie to Servest UK, had resulted in what the RMT referred to as the creation of a "two-tier workforce" amongst cleaners at GWR, with an inequality in pay and working conditions between cleaners employed directly by GWR and those outsourced to Servest UK.[51] Two 24-hour strikes were held from 06:00 on 16 and 23 December,[52] followed by a 48-hour strike from 06:00 on 19 January 2017.[53] Further industrial action was suspended by the RMT following the January strike as a result of an improvement in ongoing negotiations between the RMT, GWR and Servest UK.[54] The dispute was formally resolved in July 2017, as RMT members voted in favour of accepting a new pay deal.[55]
IET issues
A Class 800 bogie. The white casting at the top is attached to the body and has the triangular yaw damper bracket on the left and the lifting pad is at the top of the square fixture to the right.
In April 2021, cracks were discovered in the yaw damper brackets (part of the suspension system) of Class 800 and 802 InterCity Express Trains (IET). Eight trains were withdrawn from service and an investigation started into the cause.[56] On 8 May, all these trains and similar ones operated by other companies were taken out of service. Cracks had now been found in the lifting pads (a component fixed near the bogie) and it was feared that if these were to fall off they may cause injury or derailment.[57][58]
The only IET units that were permitted to operate were those which had been carefully inspected and found to have no significant cracks. This meant that most of GWR's 93 units were unavailable which led to significant disruption to long-distance services. Class 387 units operated additional services from London Paddington to Didcot Parkway which were later extended to Swindon and Bristol Parkway after approval was given for them to operate in service on this route. Three additional 387 units were loaned from c2c and were modified to work with GWR's fleet, mostly on services to Newbury. CrossCountry operated a service on behalf of GWR from Swindon to Bristol Temple Meads and the few available 800 and 802, were concentrated on services west of Swindon and to Plymouth.[59] Plans were agreed on 13 May to increase inspections of the lifting pads and yaw dampers so that more trains could be returned to service.[60][61] A further six Class 387 units were loaned from Govia Thameslink Railway in July 2021 and used in a common pool with GWR's existing 387/1 fleet, being surplus to requirements while the Gatwick Express service was suspended.[62]
Long-distance services between London and destinations in the west of the GWR network (such as Paignton, Newquay, Plymouth and Penzance) are mostly operated using the fleet of 36 Class 802 trains, the first of which was introduced on 20 August 2018.[64]
These trains are almost identical to the Class 800 trains, except they have a higher engine operating power—700 kW (940 hp) per engine as opposed to 560 kW (750 hp)—and are fitted with larger fuel tanks to cope with the gradients and extended running in diesel mode on the long unelectrified stretches in Devon and Cornwall.[65]
Hitachi planned to test a tri-mode Class 802 in 2022 fitted with batteries in an attempt to reduce emissions when entering and leaving stations.[66]
The Class 165 "Networker Turbo" is a two- or three-coach DMU used on shorter-distance services in the Thames Valley area, with the majority based at Reading Traction Maintenance Depot. They are mainly used on branches such as the Greenford branch line, Slough–Windsor & Eton line, Marlow branch line and Henley branch line. They are also used on services between Reading and Basingstoke, Didcot Parkway and Oxford or Banbury and sometimes services between London and Oxford. Some are (and eventually all will be) based at St Philip's Marsh depot in Bristol, where they work on most of the lines in the area including the Severn Beach line, Heart of Wessex Line, Golden Valley line and Bristol to Exeter line. From summer 2018, they are due to run on Cardiff Central to Portsmouth Harbour services too.
In response to its Remedial Plan Notice, First Great Western undertook a more thorough refurbishment of the Thames Turbo fleet than originally planned:[70] the trains were to be fitted with improved lighting, carpets, toilets, and a revised seating layout.[71] This refurbishment started in September 2016.
The Class 387 "Electrostar" is a four-coach EMU built by Bombardier, with a 2+2 seating layout, tables, power sockets and free Wi-Fi. It can be operated in four, eight- and twelve-coach formations. The class began to enter service in September 2016 on weekday peak services between London Paddington and Hayes & Harlington, using the overhead electrical equipment used by Heathrow Express. Services using the class were extended to Maidenhead in May 2017[72] and later to Didcot Parkway,[73] and from Reading to Newbury.
Bombardier Transportation at Ilford Depot had modified twelve of these trains by December 2020, installing new first-class seating, Wi-Fi, luggage racks and on-board entertainment, to be used on Heathrow Express services. Rebranded as "Heathrow Express", and refurbished with Heathrow Express moquette, they replaced the existing Class 332,[74] entering service on 29 December 2020.
Great Western Railway retained 24 power cars and 48 carriages from its former High Speed Train fleet to form 12 'Castle' 2+4 sets. They are branded as Class 255 sets and are for use on multiple services between Plymouth and Penzance.[76] There is a consensus that the sets shall be withdrawn at the end of 2024, ending their services with GWR in Devon and Cornwall and replaced with Class 175s.[77] All power cars being retained will have new nameplates, named after castles from across the area that GWR serve. The sets are progressively being fitted with automatic doors and controlled emission toilets, to allow their operation beyond 2020, at Doncaster Works.[65] Due to a delay in refurbishing the Castle sets, slam door 2+4 sets known as 'Classic' sets were used until the end of 2019.
Until 2017, GWR operated the vast majority of its long-distance services with a fleet of 58 InterCity 125 High Speed Train sets,[78] each consisting of eight Mark 3 coaches sandwiched between two Class 43 locomotives. GWR operated the largest InterCity 125 fleet, owning five sets outright; the rest were leased from Angel Trains and Porterbrook. From 2009 to 2012 (when Class 180s were reintroduced on the Cotswold line)[79] all the company's intercity services were worked by HSTs except the Night Riviera sleeper service between London Paddington and Penzance. From late 2017, following the completion of electrification from Hayes & Harlington to the west of England,[80] intercity services gradually became operated by Class 800 IETs, although a few peak services remained operated by HSTs until early 2019. GWR continued to use HSTs on services to Exeter, Plymouth and Penzance until May 2019, when they were all withdrawn in favour of Class 802 units.[81]
The youngest Class 43 locomotive dated from 1982. After a successful trial by Angel Trains and FGW in 2004, two power cars received new MTU engines while two received new Paxman VP185s, fitted by Brush Traction of Loughborough. The MTU engine proved the better option, both for reliability and for emissions, resulting in FGW, Brush and Angel Trains starting the HST Modernisation programme. The last power cars to be re-engineered were released in April 2008, while several other companies' HSTs have now all undergone a similar programme.[82]
GWR's High Speed Train fleet were refurbished by Bombardier in Derby and Ilford between 2006 and 2008,[83] with leather seats introduced in first class, redesigned toilets, a redesigned buffet, and at-seat power points. The company opted for mainly airline seats, giving more seats per train.
The fleet of 17 two-coach Class 150 Sprinter units was inherited from Wessex Trains as part of the Greater Western franchise shuffle. The fleet had been refurbished by Wessex Trains in 2003, with 2+2 seating arranged in a mixture of 'airline' (face to back) and table seating. The fleet is widespread throughout the former Wessex area, and carried a maroon livery with advertising vinyls for South West Tourism. Each unit was sponsored by a district, town or attraction and carried a unique livery. Most received names of attractions, places and branch lines. Two units were repainted into the new First 'Local' livery, but all units are now due to receive the new green GWR livery. As part of a national fleet shuffle, eight units went to Arriva Trains Wales on 10 December 2006, and were replaced with 8 Class 158 units.
First Great Western received five extra Class 150/2 units in May 2007 as part of its Remedial Plan Notice, to enable three-car Class 158 trains to operate on the Portsmouth-Cardiff services.[70] Five Class 150 sets were hired from Arriva Trains Wales from March 2008 until they were returned in November 2010.
The Class 158 is a two- or three-coach DMU used on regional express services in the former Wessex Trains area. In February 2008, as part of its Remedial Plan Notice, First Great Western announced that it would form some hybrid three-car Class 158 units in March 2008, made possible by the transfer of five Class 150/2 units from Arriva Trains Wales.[70] This allowed for ten hybrid units in operation and, combined with one non-hybrid three-car unit, provided eleven three-car units to operate services between Portsmouth and Cardiff and Great Malvern and Weymouth alongside the two-car units. After the introduction of Class 150/1 trains from London Overground and London Midland, three of the remaining five two-coach Class 158s were reformed to provide two further three-coach Class 158s.[84] However, following their operations largely being taken over by Class 165 and Class 166 units in the Bristol area, most of these units were reformed to restore them to 2 coach formation.[citation needed]
The fleet was refurbished in a programme begun in 2007,[85] which included fitting of reupholstered seats, new lighting and floor coverings, CCTV within the passenger saloons, and refurbished toilets. At the same time, the exteriors of the vehicles were repainted in the updated FGW livery, including artwork depicting various local places of interest. The refurbishment work took place at the Wabtec plant in Doncaster.[86]
In 2018, the 158s began running alongside the first completed Class 255Castle set on services between Bristol, Exeter, Plymouth and Penzance. Since then, more of the 158 fleet have gradually started to move more west with more 158 sets working services between Exmouth and Paignton / Barnstaple. The timetable change in December 2019 saw the start of the 158s taking over from the 143s primarily on the Tarka Line to Barnstaple, with some of the units also working on the Cardiff / Bristol to Penzance route alongside the Castle sets.[87]
These trains were subleased from Great Northern in 2021, to provide cover for Class 800 and Class 802 InterCity Express Train (IET) units, following cracks being found on the IETs
After the issues surrounding the IET trains were resolved, these units were returned to Great Northern at the end of 2021
These trains were transferred from c2c to provide cover for Class 800 and Class 802 InterCity Express Train (IET) units, following cracks being found on the IETs
In June 2022 the units were withdrawn and transferred to Great Northern in July 2022[104]
Locomotive-hauled trains were in use on services between Cardiff, Bristol, Taunton and Paignton from December 2008 until November 2010 using Virgin TrainsClass 57 locomotives with Mark 2 coaching stock. A second set hauled by EWSClass 67s was used between December 2009 and October 2010. These were withdrawn when sufficient DMUs were available following the transfer of six Class 150/1 sets from London Overground.[105] First Great Western issued a tender in May 2013 so that locomotive-hauled trains, or other train formations, could be operated on the Taunton-Cardiff route again, proposed to start in December 2013, to cover for DMUs out of service for refurbishment on Monday-to-Friday diagrams.[106] GWR also runs loco-hauled sets composed of seating coaches and a Class 57 locomotive from the Night Riviera service between Penzance and Exeter St Davids as part of the summer timetable to release a DMU for other services.
Twelve Class 142Pacer DMUs were received by First Great Western in 2007, starting operations that December. These were sub-leased from Northern Rail (where they had been stored), in part to cover for refurbishment of FGW's Sprinter fleets but also to allow the Class 158s to be re-formed as three-coach sets. They were based at Exeter TMD, working alongside the similar Class 143s on services in Devon and Cornwall, including the Avocet Line, Riviera Line and Tarka Line. Five 142s were returned to Northern Rail in late 2008, following the completion of the refresh of Class 150 Sprinter units. The remaining seven units were returned to Northern Rail by November 2011 as they had been replaced by Class 150 units cascaded from London Overground and London Midland following the arrival of new Class 172Turbostar units.
GWR's Night Riviera service also included the UK's last Motorail service, until that aspect was withdrawn at the end of the 2005 summer season due to low usage.
First Great Western previously leased 14 Class 180Adelante units, operating on the Great Western Main Line, but following technical issues they were transferred elsewhere.[107][108] In 2012, five units were returned to First Great Western to operate weekday services on the Cotswold Line, allowing class 165 and 166 units to be reallocated to increase capacity on Thames Valley services.[79] The Class 180s left GWR in stages between June and December 2017 to join Grand Central.[109][110]
The 150/1s in the GWR fleet transferred to Arriva Rail North in stages, beginning with the first three in August 2017 when their leases expired,[111] and ending in April 2018.[112] The 153s also transferred elsewhere in stages too, with the first four units going to East Midlands Trains and the next five units going to Arriva Rail North. This left just five 153 units with GWR, which eventually transferred to Transport for Wales in April 2019.[113]
Future fleet
In February 2023, GWR purchased a number of assets from the administrators of battery train manufacturer Vivarail, including 67 former London Underground D78 Stock carriages and intellectual property rights to the Class 230.[114][115] GWR have also employed nine Vivarail staff. It intends to trial the Class 230 units on the Greenford branch line between West Ealing and Greenford.
In August 2024, Rail Express reported that GWR were planning to lease the Class 175 fleet.[116] In November 2024, it was announced that GWR had signed a lease for the Class 175 fleet; the fleet is planned to enter service in 2025.[117] On 27 November 2024, 175002 was the first Class 175 unit to transfer to GWR.[118]
It was planned for Great Western Railway to operate nineteen Class 769/9 units once they were fully rolled out. The operator intended to run the first services in spring 2019,[119] but this was delayed by issues faced by Porterbrook in converting the units. However, the first vehicle has been delivered and all were expected to be delivered by the end of 2021.
Although initially planned for use in London and the Thames Valley, while 12 Class 387 units were modified for Heathrow Express services, the future plan for these units was to be operating on services between Oxford, Reading and Gatwick Airport, which would have meant operating on non-electrified lines, 25 kV AC OHLE and 750 V DC third-rail routes. To enable this, GWR's allocation of Class 769 units retained their dual-voltage capability in addition to being fitted with diesel power units. The units also received an internal refurbishment and be fitted with air cooling.[120]
The first Class 769 to be delivered to GWR was unit 769943, which arrived at Reading TMD in August 2020. It was expected to enter service in early 2021.[121] The Class 769 was expected to enter squadron service with GWR between June and December 2021,[122] but this was later delayed to 2022.
In December 2022, GWR announced that the introduction of the Class 769 fleet would be abandoned and the units handed back to Porterbrook in April 2023. This was to comply with DfT mandated cost-cutting and also as a result of dissatisfaction with the reliability of the units on test.[123]
Livery
HST in modified Great Western Trains livery with First Group logo and fader vinyls at Reading
A First Great Western Class 150 in the 'Local Lines' livery, worn by former Wessex Trains services
Great Western Trains adopted a livery of dark-green upper body and ivory lower body, with a stylised 'Merlin' bird logo.[124] Following the rebranding as First Great Western, fader vinyls were added to the lower body, with a gold bar containing the stylised FirstGroup F logo and separate Great Western logotype.[125] This livery was sometimes known as the 'fag packet' livery.[126]
When the Class 180 Adelante units were delivered, they were painted in the intercity version of FirstGroup's corporate bus livery. This consisted of a purple-blue base, with pink and gold bars and large pink Fs on the carriage sides and white highlights along the roof and around the driver's cab. The doors were painted white to comply with the Disability Discrimination Act 1995. The HST fleet was repainted to match as they went through overhaul; however, the livery on the power cars was progressively altered to a plain blue base with pink and gold stripes, following problems with dirt build-up on the large white areas.[124]
The new Greater Western franchise involved repainting the HST fleet into FirstGroup's 'Dynamic Lines' livery for intercity and commuter services in the former First Great Western and First Great Western Link areas. The livery was initially applied to the HST fleet as they went through refurbishment, although the Class 180 units did not receive the new livery due to the termination of their lease. The commuter units also received the new livery while receiving standard maintenance, as a refurbishment was not originally planned.[127]
The rebranding of the company as Great Western Railway introduced a new GWR logo and a dark green livery with white stripes and grey doors in September 2015.[128]
Depots
Great Western Railway trains are based at eight depots. Other depots at Landore (Swansea) and Old Oak Common (London) closed in 2018.
Channel 5 broadcast two television series looking into day-to-day challenges of the Great Western mainline, including events at Dawlish (as well as the sea wall destruction), Cheltenham race day and rugby at Cardiff. It was broadcast as The Railway: First Great Western and the last series aired in 2015. A similar series based on London Paddington started in September 2017 and covered events such as the reaction to the Manchester Arena and London Bridge attacks, and several days of severe disruption.[citation needed]
Future of the franchise
The franchise was due to end on 31 March 2020. In November 2017, the DfT announced its intention to negotiate a further extension for the franchise until April 2022 with an option to extend for a further two years.[132][133] A new contract was agreed on 30 March 2020, running for three years, extendable to four.[134]
^Marsden, Colin J (2020). "HSTs - The New Era". Modern Locomotives Illustrated. No. 246. Stamford, Lincs: Key Publishing. pp. 62–68.
^"Speed limiters for Hitachi fleets". Traction & Stock. The Railway Magazine. Vol. 168, no. 1457. August 2022. p. 92.
^"First Class 800 'Super Express Train' arrives in the UK". The Railway Magazine. Vol. 161, no. 1369. Horncastle, Lincs. 1 April 2015. pp. 6–7. ISSN0033-8923.
^"GWR Class 150/1's transfer to Northern Trains". Taunton Trains. 12 January 2018. Retrieved 17 January 2018. Great Western Railway Class 150/1s (which were originally inherited from Central Trains and Silverlink Trains) are now in the process of being transferred to Northern Trains.
Peti mati Henuttawy C. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Henuttawy atau Henettawy, merupakan seorang putri Mesir Kuno[1] dan imam selama Dinasti kedua puluh satu Mesir. Biografi Henuttawy mungkin adalah putri Imam Tinggi Theban Amun Menkheperre dan Isetemkheb C, dirinya putri Firaun Psusennes I. Ia kemungkinan menikah dengan saudaranya Smendes II yang menjadi Imam Tinggi Amun setelah kematian ayahandanya. Pasangan ini setidaknya memiliki seorang putri, Isetemkheb E.[2] Ia memegang b...
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Linux Foundation open-source project This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Yocto Project – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Initial release2010; 14 years ago (2010)Stable release4.3 (Nanbield) / October&#...
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Cet article est une ébauche concernant une commune des Côtes-d'Armor. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?). Le bandeau {{ébauche}} peut être enlevé et l’article évalué comme étant au stade « Bon début » quand il comporte assez de renseignements encyclopédiques concernant la commune. Si vous avez un doute, l’atelier de lecture du projet Communes de France est à votre disposition pour vous aider. Consultez également la page d’...
1991 edition of the World Table Tennis Championships 1991 World Table TennisChampionshipsEventsSinglesmenwomenDoublesmenwomenmixedTeammenwomen19891993vte The 1991 World Table Tennis Championships were held in Chiba from April 24 to May 6, 1991.[1][2] North Korea and South Korea fielded a unified team under the name Korea (コリア[3][4] Koria), the first of all Unified Korean sporting teams. The women's Korean team captured the gold medal by topping China, win...
سخانات المياه بالطاقة الشمسية على السطح موجودة في كل مكان في الصين الصين هي أكبر سوق في العالم لكل من الخلايا الكهروضوئية والطاقة الحرارية الشمسية. منذ عام 2013، كانت الصين هي الرائدة في عالميا في تركيب الخلايا الكهروضوئية الشمسية (PV). في عام 2015، أصبحت الصين أكبر منتج في العا�...
2020 single by Lil Tjay 20/20Single by Lil TjayReleasedJanuary 1, 2020Length3:50LabelColumbiaSongwriter(s) Tione Merritt Placido Diego Elson Levi de Jong Producer(s) Dovgh Woodpecker Lil Tjay singles chronology Go In (2019) 20/20 (2020) Valentino (Remix) (2020) Music video20/20 on YouTube 20/20 is a single by American rapper Lil Tjay, released on January 1, 2020 by Columbia Records. Composition The song begins with a piano introduction for about 40 seconds, before precise bass and skittering ...
Institutional corruption in the country Political corruption Forms and concepts Bribery Cronyism Economics of corruption Electoral fraud Elite capture Influence peddling Kleptocracy Mafia state Nepotism Pyrrhic defeat theory Slush fund Simony State capture State-corporate crime Throffer Anti-corruption International Anti-Corruption Court Group of States Against Corruption International Anti-Corruption Academy International Anti-Corruption Day United Nations Convention against Corruption Corru...
Lingue anglo-frisoniTassonomiaFilogenesiLingue indoeuropee Lingue germaniche Lingue germaniche occidentali Lingue ingevoniche Lingue anglo-frisoni Codici di classificazioneGlottologangl1264 (EN) ManualeLe lingue anglo-frisoni sono un ramo delle lingue germaniche occidentali, sottogruppo delle lingue germaniche. Ne fanno parte le lingue angliche (inglese, scots e yola) e frisoni (frisone settentrionale, orientale e occidentale) Le lingue ...
Juridical concept in which someone persecuted by their country may take refuge in another Political asylum redirects here. For the band, see Political Asylum (band). Part of a series onImmigration General Immigration by country Immigration policy Illegal immigration History and law Border security Citizenship Jus soli Immigration law Indefinite leave to remain Non-refoulement Right of asylum Refugee Visa Social processes Social integration Immigrant assimilation Acculturation (Acculturation G...
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