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Dom
Dom
Dom [ndom˩˥]
Native to	Papua New Guinea
Region	Gumine District and Sinasina District of the Simbu Province
Native speakers	16,000 (2006)
Language family	Trans–New Guinea Chimbu–Wahgi Chimbu Eastern Dom; ; ; ;
Dialects	Era; Non Ku; Ilai Ku;
Language codes
ISO 639-3	doa
Glottolog	domm1246

Dom is a Trans–New Guinea language of the Eastern Group of the Chimbu family, spoken in the Gumine and Sinasina Districts of Chimbu Province and in some other isolated settlements in the western highlands of Papua New Guinea.^[2]

Sociolinguistic Background

The Dom people live in an agricultural society, which has a tribal, patrilocal and patrilineal organization. There is only small dialectal differentiation among the clans. The predominant religion is Christianity.^[3]

Language Contact Situation

There are three different languages spoken by Dom speakers alongside Dom: Tok Pisin, Kuman and English. Tok Pisin serves as the Papuan lingua franca. Kuman, which is a closely related eastern Chimbu language of high social and cultural prestige, functions as the prestige language used in ceremonies and official situations. School lessons are mostly held in English.^[4]

Grammar

Phonology

Vowels

Vowels^[5]
	Front	Back
Close	i	u
Mid	e	o
Open	a aː

Minimal pairs

e~i	˦de 'faeces'~˦di 'axe'
o~u	˦kol 'part~˦kul 'grass'
e~o~a	˥˩pel 'to dig'~˥˩pol 'to pull out'~˥˩pal 'to skin'
a~a:	˥˩bna 'brother'~˥˩bna: 'frame over the fireplace'

Allophones

Vowel lengthening in a contour pitched syllable has allophonic character.

Vowels	default realisation	contour pitched syllable	word final	special context
e	[e]~[ɛ]	[e:]	[ə],Ø	#C_#
i	[i]	[i:]	[i]	[i]
o	[o]~[ɔ]	[o:]~[oɔ]	[o]	[o]
u	[u]	[u:]	[u]	[u]
a	[a]	[a:]	[a]	[a]

Vowel Sequences

iu,io,ia uo

eu,ei,ea o

au,ai,ae a:

Consonants

Source:^[6]

The Dom consonant system consists of 13 indigenous and 3 loan consonants.

		bilabial	alveolar	alveopalatal	velar
nasals		m	n
plosive/ affricate	voiceless	p	t	(ts~tʃ ⟨c⟩)^[a]	k
plosive/ affricate	prenasalized + voiced	ᵐb	ⁿd	(ⁿdʒ ⟨j⟩)^[a]	ᵑg
fricative			s
lateral			l		(ʟ)^[a]
flap			ɾ
approximant		w		j ⟨y⟩

^ ^a ^b ^c The three loan phonemes are unstable to a varying degree.

Minimal pairs

˩˥su 'two' ~ ˩˥tu 'thick'

~ ˩˥du 'squeeze'

~ ˩˥nu 'aim at'

~ ˩˥ku 'hold in the mouth'

~ ˩˥gu 'shave'

~ ˩˥pu 'blow'

~ ˩˥mu 'his/her back'

~ ˩˥yu 'harvest taro'

Allophones

	/p/	/t/	/k/	/b/	/<d/	/g/	/m/	/n/	(/c/)	(/j/)	/s/	/l/	/(ʟ)/	/r/	/w/	/y/
default realization	[p]	[t]	[k]	[ᵐb]	[ⁿd]	[ŋg]	[m]	[n]	([tʃ])	([ⁿdʒ])	[s]	[l]	([ʟ])	[ɾ]	[w]	[j]
free alternation										([d(i)])	[ts], [tʃ]		([k] [ʟ̥] [k͡ʟ̥])	[r], [n], [l]
#_	[pp]	[t],[tt]	[kk]	[b],[bb]	[d],[dd]	[g],[gg]	[m]	[n]	[tʃ]	[j],[jj]	[s],[ʃ]	Ø	Ø	([ɾ])	Ø	Ø
V_V	[β]	([t])	[ɣ]			[ŋ], [ŋg]					[s], [ʃ]	([l])
other contexts					[ɖ]			[ɳ]			[ʃ]	[ʟ]	[t^]/[d^]	Ø

Variants can be determined by the factors of dialect or age. Certain exceptions show archaic variants, for example the existence of intervocal [b] in the word ˥˩iba 'but' or the otherwise non-existent sequence [lk], which is used only by elderly people or in official situations. Brackets "()" show, that the allophone is used only in loanwords.

Tones

Source:^[7]

Dom is a tonal language. Each word carries one of three tones as shown in the examples below:

high:
- ka˥ 'word'
- mu˥kal˥ 'a kind of bamboo'
- no˥ma˥ne˥ 'to think'
falling:
- ^ŋgal˥˩ 'string back'
- jo˥pa˩ ' yopa tree', jo˥pal˥˩ 'people'
- a˥ra˥wa˩ 'pumpkin'
rising:
- kal˩˥ 'thing'
- a˩pal˧ 'woman'
- au˩pa˩le˧ 'sister.3SG.POSS'

Minimal pairs

wam˥˩ (personal name) ~ wam˩ 'to hitch.3SG' ~ wam˥ 'son.3SG.POSS'

Non-phonemic Elements

[ɨ] is optionally inserted between consonants:

˥˩komna 'vegetable' kom˥ na˩ or kom˥ ɨ na˩

Morphology

Dom is a suffixing language. Morpheme boundaries between person-number and mood morphemes can be combined.

Syntax

Source:^[8]

Phrase Structure

Noun Phrase

attributive noun phrases possessor marker relative clause noun classifier	head noun	numerals adjektives appositions	demonstratives

elements preceding the head:

attributive NP

yal

man

i

DEM

kal

thing

'the thing of the man'

possessive marker

na

you

bola-n

pig-2SG.POSS

'your pig'

relative clause

o

hand.3SG.POSS

pal

by

bin-gwa

produce-3SG.SRD

kal

thing

'thing produced by hand'

noun classifier

bola

pig

sipsip

sheep

'sheep'

elements following the head:

numerals

yal

man

su

two

'two men'

adjectives

gal

child

bl

big

'big child'

appositions

ge

girl

apal

woman

gal

child

'girl, female child'

demonstratives

yal

man

i

DEM

'this man'

If a noun phrase includes a demonstrative element, it has always the last position of the phrase:

yal

man

su

two

i

DEM

'the two men'

Adjective Phrase

	head adjective	intensifier

er

tree

wai

good

won

truly

ta

a

'a very good tree'

Postpositional Phrase

noun	head postposition

m-na

mother-1SG.POSS

bol

with

'with my mother'

Verbal Phrase

subject (object)	object (subject)	adverbials conditional adverbial clauses final adverbial clauses	head verb	AUX mutual knowledge marker enclitics	demonstratives

elements preceding the head verb:

subject:

yal

man

su

two

al-ipke

stand up-2/3DU.IND

'two men stand up'

subject-object:

na

1.EXCL

keepa

sweet.potato

ne-ke

eat-1SG.IND

'I eat a sweet potato'

adverbial

orpl-d

quickly

u-o

come-2SG.IMP

'come quickly'

final clause

er

to

ila

inside

na-l

go-1SG.FUT

d

Q

u-ke

come-1SG.IND

'I came to go inside'

elements following the head verb:

auxiliars:

bl-n

head-2SG.POSS

de

burn.INF

bla

burst

d-na-wdae

(say)-FUT-3SG.MUT

'Your head will be burnt and explode (as a matter of course)'

mutual knowledge marker

mol-me

stay-1SG.IND

=krae

=MUT

'he/she stay as we know'

demonstratives

yo-gwa

be-3SG.IND

ime

down.there

'There it is down over there'

There are no zero-place predicates in Dom. As a subject ˩˥kamn 'world' is used:

˩˥kamn

rain

˥˩su-gwe

hit-3SG.IND

'It rains'

Constituent Order

Source:^[9]

The predominant constituent order is SOV. Only the predicate has to be expressed overtly. An exception are absolute-topic type clauses, which consist only of one noun phrase.^[10]

Characteristics of the constituent order

Three Place Predicate Order^[11]

In the case of a three place predicate the recipient noun always follows the gift noun:

˥Ella

tribe.name

Noun

˩˥Naur

tribe.name

adjunct

˥˩moni

money

Gift

˥na

1.EXCL

Recipient

˥˩te-na-m=˥˩ua

give-FUT-3SG=ENC.WA

V

'The Naur subtribe of the Ella tribe shall give me money.' Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);

The only position which can be optionally filled is the sentence topic. Possible constituents can be the subject of an equational sentence (default), an extrasentential or a topicalized constituent:

subject in an equational sentence (default)

subject	object	verb

˩˥apal

woman

˩˥su

two

˥˩i

DEM

˥na

1.EXCL

˥˩ep-na

wife

'These two women are my wives'

extrasentential:

extrasentential	subject	verb

˩˥apal

woman

˩˥su

two

˥˩i

DEM

˥na

1.EXCL

˥˩ep-na

wife-1SG.POSS

˩˥mo-ip-ke

stay-2/3DU-IND

'As for these two women, they are my wives'

topicalized constituent:

object (topicalzied)	subject	verb

˩˥apal

woman

˩˥su

two

˥˩i

DEM

˥na

1.EXCL

˥i

take.INF

˩˥war-ke

move.around-1SG.IND

'As for these two women, I have them as spouses'

Marking of Syntactical Relations

Person and Number

Source:^[12]

Dom has three different person-number-systems: for pronouns, possessive suffixes on nouns and cross reference markers on verbs.

person-number system for pronouns:
	1	2
general (excl)	˥na	˥en
non-singular (excl)	˥no
non-singular(incl)	˩˥none
non-singular	˥ne

person-number system for possessive suffixes:
	1	2	3
singular	-na	-n	-m
non-singular	-ne

cross reference markers:
	1	2	3
singular	-i~-Ø	-n	-m
dual	-pl	-ipl
plural(three or more)	-pn	-im

The marking of dual and plural is not obligatory in all cases but depends on the sem ±human ±animate:

	+human	-human
+animate	almost obligatory	optional/uncommon
-animate	Ø	scarcely used

Tense

Source:^[13]

Dom has an unmarked non-future tense and a marked future tense.

Non-Future

Non-future tense is used, if

the event follows immediately
the event is in the past

˥ere

to

˥˩e-ke

go-1SG.IND

'I go/I went'

Future tense

Future tense is marked by the suffix -na (-na~-ra~-a)^[14] and is used, if

the event is part of the speaker's plan for the next day
the event is the speaker's intention and it is possible for the speaker to go through with it
the event describes a potentiality or a permanent quality

˥ere

to

˥˩na-ke

go.FUT-1SG.IND

'I will go'

'I think I will go'
'I might go’

'I am the kind of person, who goes'

Negation

^[15]

A predicate is negated by the suffix -kl. The preceding negation particle ˥ta is optional.

˥na

1.EXCL

˥˩kurl

fear

˥ta

NEG

˥go

die

+˩˥k

NEG

-pge

1PL.IND

'We (excl.) did not fear'

Lexic

Noun Classifiers

Source:^[16]

Noun classifiers are lexical items preceding a noun with a more specified meaning. Phonetically and syntactically they form one unit with the following noun and thus differ from an apposition, which consists of two or more phonetic constituents. Noun classifiers can have the following functions:

no obvious lexical specification:

˥˩nl

water

˥nul

river

'river'

specifying a polysemoous word:

˥ere

tree

˥˩aml

peanut/pandanus

'pandanus which bears the nut-like fruit'

˥kul

grass

˥˩aml

peanut/pandanus

'peanut'

explaining loanwords:

˥˩nl

water

˥˩bia

alcohol

'Alkohol'

˥˩bola

pig

˥˩sipsip

sheep

'sheep'

Repetition

A noun can be repeated to express the following relations:^[17]

reciprocity

˥˩birua

enemy

˥˩birua

enemy

˩˥me-ipka

stay-2/3.SRD

'The two are enemies for each other'

plurality

˥˩kal

thing

˥˩kal

thing

'several things'

Loanwords

Tok Pisin is the main source for lexical borrowing, borrowings from English are often made indirectly via Tok Pisin. Borrowed lexemes mostly refer to new cultural objects and concepts as well as proper names and high numbers.,^[4] which did not exist in the Dom language before:

kar ’car’
skul 'school, to study'
akn 'Mount Hagen'
andret 'hundred'

But recently some already existing Dom words have begun to be replaced by Tok Pisin lexical items:

wanpla for dom tenanta 'one'
blat for dom miam 'blood'
stori for dom kapore-el- 'to tell a story'

The Demonstrative System

Source:^[18]

Dom has a spatial referencing demonstrative system, i.e. there are certain demonstrative lexemes bearing information about the spatial relation of the referred object to the speaker alongside neutral demonstratives. A Dom speaker also uses different lexemes for visible and invisible objects. In the case of visible objects, the speaker locates it on a horizontal and vertical axis as to whether it is proximal, medium or distal from the speaker and on the same level, uphill or downhill.

Demonstratives with spatial alignment:^[19]

	proximal	medium	distal
without vertical alignment	˥ya	˥˩sipi
level	˥yale	˥˩ile	˩˥ile
uphill	˥yape	˥˩ipe	˩˥ipe
downhill	˥yame	˥˩ime	˩˥ime

For invisible objects one must be aware of the cause for its invisibility. If it is invisible because the object is behind the speaker, a proximal demonstrative is used. Objects obscured behind an obstacle are referred to with distal demonstratives and invisible objects by their nature with downhill demonstratives. Invisible objects, that are very far away, are referred to with the downhill distal demonstrative ˩˥ime.