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Cultural nationalism is a term used by scholars of nationalism to describe efforts among intellectuals to promote the formation of national communities through emphasis on a common culture. It is contrasted with "political" nationalism, which refers to specific movements for national self-determination through the establishment of a nation-state.^[1]^[2]^[3]

Definition

John Hutchinson's 1987 work The Dynamics of Cultural Nationalism argued against earlier scholarship that tended to conflate nationalism and state-seeking movements.^[4] Hutchinson developed a typography distinguishing cultural from political nationalists, describing how the former act as moral innovators, emerging at times of crisis, to engender movements that offer new maps of identity based on historical myths that - in turn - may inspire programmes of socio-political regeneration from the latter. He emphasises the dynamic role of historians and artists, showing how they interact with religious reformists and a discontented modernising intelligentsia to form national identities.

In his later work, Hutchinson admits his earlier distinction may be too simplistic^[5] and recognises:

It is often hard in practice to separate cultural and political nationalisms. Cultural nationalists often engage in political, even insurrectionary activities, and nationalists whose goal is for political independence may justify their claims by arguments that their nation has an ancient distinctive culture that is threatened by foreign rule.
— John Hutchinson, Cultural Nationalism, p.75

What distinguishes these cultural "revivals" from earlier ones is their political dynamism, arising from the "coming together of neo-classical and pre-romantic European intellectual currents".^[6] These cultural nationalist movements aimed at cultural homogenisation and utilised the study of history as a resource for social innovation. Intellectuals aim to "present populations with new maps of identity and political prescriptions that claim to combine the virtues of historical tradition and modern progress at times of crisis".^[7]

History

Anthony D. Smith describes how intellectuals played a primary role in generating cultural perceptions of nationalism:

Wherever one turns in Europe, their seminal position in generating and analysing the concepts, myths, symbols and ideology of nationalism is apparent. This applies to the first appearance of the core doctrine and to the antecedent concepts of national character, genius of the nation and national will.^[8]

Smith posits the challenges posed to traditional religion and society in the Age of Revolution propelled many intellectuals to "discover alternative principles and concepts, and a new mythology and symbolism, to legitimate and ground human thought and action".^[9] The simultaneous concept of 'historicism' was characterised by an emerging belief in the birth, growth, and decay of specific peoples and cultures, which became "increasingly attractive as a framework for inquiry into the past and present and [...] an explanatory principle in elucidating the meaning of events, past and present".^[10]

Johann Gottfried Herder and Johann Gottlieb Fichte are considered key figures who argued for such a cultural definition of nationhood. They emphasised the distinctness of national cultures based predominantly around language, stressing its character as "the epitome of people’s unique historical memories and traditions and the central source of the national spirit".^[11]

Miroslav Hroch argues cultural nationalism laid the foundation for the emergence political nationalism.^[12]

For Yael Tamir, the right to national self-determination represents the embodiment of the "unique cultural essence of cultural groups" and their right to develop cultural distinctiveness, irrespective of whether these groups seek an independent nation-state.^[13]

Criticism

Some scholars, such as Craig Calhoun and Eric Hobsbawm, among others, criticize cultural definitions of nationhood for neglecting the role of the state in the formation of national identities and the role played by socio-political elites in constructing cultural identities. Similarly, Paul Brass argues national identities are not given but rather the product of the politics of socio-political elites.^[14]

Umut Ozkirimli rejects a sharp distinction between cultural and political nationalism, emphasising that nationalism is about both. He states it simultaneously involves "the ‘culturalization’ of politics and the ‘politicisation’ of culture".^[15]

Examples

Moderate manifestations of Flemish^[16] or Hindu^[17] nationalisms might be "cultural nationalism", while these same movements also include forms of ethnic nationalism and national mysticism.

References

^ Hutchinson, John (2013). "Cultural Nationalism". In Breuilly, John (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-19-876820-3. The demarcation between cultural and political nationalism is whether the primary concern is with the establishment of a strong community or a strong territorial state, as the basis of the nation
^ Nielsen, Kai. (1999). Cultural nationalism, neither ethnic nor civic. In R. Beiner (Ed.), Theorizing nationalism (pp. 119-130). Albany: State University of New York Press.
^ "History of Europe: Cultural nationalism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2008-02-16. The counterpart of this political idea [i.e. the revolutionary doctrine of the sovereignty of the people] in the 19th century is cultural nationalism. The phrase denotes the belief that each nation in Europe had from its earliest formation developed a culture of its own, with features as unique as its language, even though its language and culture might have near relatives over the frontier.
^ The dynamics of cultural nationalism: the Gaelic revival and the creation of the Irish nation, J Hutchinson – 1987 – Allen & Unwin Pty.
^ Hutchinson, John (2013). "Cultural Nationalism". In Breuilly, John (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-19-876820-3.
^ Hutchinson, John (2013). "Cultural Nationalism". In Breuilly, John (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-19-876820-3.
^ Hutchinson, John (2013). "Cultural Nationalism". In Breuilly, John (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 77, 86. ISBN 978-0-19-876820-3.
^ Smith, A.D. (1991). National Identity. Penguin. p.94.
^ Smith, A.D. (1991). National Identity. Penguin. p.96.
^ Smith, A.D. (1991). National Identity. Penguin. p.87.
^ Dar, Abdul Maajid (17 November 2022). "Revisiting key debates in the study of nationalism". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 9. Article number: 411. doi:10.1057/s41599-022-01432-w.
^ Eric Taylor Woods. 2016. Cultural Nationalism. in: Inglis, David and Almila, Anna-Mari (ed.) The SAGE Handbook of Cultural Sociology SAGE. pp. 429-441
^ Dar, Abdul Maajid (17 November 2022). "Revisiting key debates in the study of nationalism". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 9. Article number: 411. doi:10.1057/s41599-022-01432-w.
^ Dar, Abdul Maajid (17 November 2022). "Revisiting key debates in the study of nationalism". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 9. Article number: 411. doi:10.1057/s41599-022-01432-w.
^ Dar, Abdul Maajid (17 November 2022). "Revisiting key debates in the study of nationalism". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. 9. Article number: 411. doi:10.1057/s41599-022-01432-w.
^ Kymlicka, Will. (1999). Misunderstanding nationalism. In R. Beiner (Ed.), Theorizing nationalism (pp. 131-140). Albany: State University of New York Press, p. 133; Nielsen, Kai. (1999). Cultural nationalism, neither ethnic nor civic. In R. Beiner (Ed.), Theorizing nationalism (pp. 119-130). Albany: State University of New York Press, p. 126
^ Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, one of the main votaries of Hindutva has stated that it believes in a cultural connotation of the term Hindu. "The term Hindu in the conviction as well as in the constitution of the RSS is a cultural and civilizational concept and not a political or religious dogma. The term as a cultural concept will include and did always include all Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Muslims, Christians, and Parsis. The cultural nationality of India, in the conviction of the RSS, is Hindu and it was inclusive of all who are born and who have adopted Bharat as their Motherland, including Muslims, Christians, and Parsis. The answering association submits that it is not just a matter of RSS conviction, but a fact borne out by history that the Muslims, Christians, and Parsis too are Hindus by culture although as religions they are not so."