坚齿鱼目

坚齿鱼目
化石時期: 晚三叠世至始新世
不同的坚齿鱼目化石
不同的坚齿鱼目化石
科學分類
界: 動物界 Animalia
門: 脊索动物门 Chordata
綱: 辐鳍鱼纲 Actinopterygii
亞綱: 新鳍亚纲 Neopterygii
目: 坚齿鱼目 Pycnodontiformes
Berg, 1937

坚齿鱼目学名Pycnodontiformes)是一个已灭绝的目,以海生硬骨鱼为主。该目最早出现在晚三叠纪,在始新世消失。目前在非洲、亚洲、欧洲、北美和南美的岩层中均发现了该目化石。[1]

它们是中小型鱼类,通常具有横向压缩的身体,有些物种具有几乎呈圆形的身体轮廓。[2][3]该目中的大多数(但并非所有)成员的下颚都有圆形扁平的牙齿,[4]非常适合压碎硬质食物,如棘皮动物、甲壳类动物和贝类。[3]一些坚齿鱼类演化出了类似食人鱼的牙齿,用于吃肉。[5][6]大多数坚齿鱼类生活在浅海珊瑚礁环境中,而少数坚齿鱼类生活在淡水或微咸水环境。

虽然在三叠纪和中侏罗世早期数量很少,但在侏罗纪晚期,坚齿鱼目变得丰富多样,在白垩纪早期表现出较高的多样性。在晚白垩世时,它们达到了形态和物种多样性的顶峰,之后它们开始逐渐衰退,在白垩纪末由于珊瑚礁生态系统的崩溃其多样性突然下降,最终在始新世灭绝。坚齿鱼目被认为属于新鳍亚纲,但它们与该亚纲其他成员的关系尚不确定。[3]

进化与多样性

Macromesodon gibbosus (以前是Eomesodon属的一个物种),发现于侏罗纪索伦霍芬石灰岩布伦德齿鱼科物种。

坚齿鱼目最早出现在晚三叠纪,与其他成功的早期新鳍亚纲如平齿鱼目一起出现。新鳍亚纲早期进行辐射演化的一个原因是它们对不同食物的适应性。发现于意大利晚三叠世佐尔齐诺石灰石英语Calcare di Zorzino的坚齿鱼目有短而结实的下颌和巨大的适合压碎硬物的牙齿,可以吃硬壳猎物,而其他辐鳍鱼类,如龙鱼目比耶鱼属,主要占据顶级捕食者生态位。它们起源于海洋栖息地,专门进化出了适应珊瑚礁环境中的机动能力,并在中生代发展了对各种环境的适应性,使它们能够寻找新的饮食和栖息地,如河口和淡水水域。只有少数物种适应了开阔水域,比如环角鱼科的物种。[3]在西特提斯洋,坚齿鱼目一直具有很高的物种多样性。这种稳定的环境,加上有利的气候条件,促进了基底坚齿鱼类的扩散。[7]

它们进化出了不同的颌骨结构,以避免与其他硬食性新鳍亚纲(如平齿鱼目铰齿鱼类英语Ginglymodi)的潜在竞争。此外,坚齿鱼目的下颌也能使它们与这些新鳍亚纲鱼类区别开来,因为其允许它们以更坚硬的猎物为食,而它们体型的增大使它们能够捕食更大的猎物或专门捕食少数物种。坚齿鱼目的不同科在身体和下巴形状上也存在差异,这意味着它们的饮食和栖息地比以前想象的更加多样化。[3]

坚齿鱼目的化石记录跨越了1.75亿年,从三叠纪始新世,比非鸟恐龙存在的时间更长。它们的早期化石记录是不完整的,晚三叠世只有三个属,都有完整的标本。然而,从早侏罗世到中侏罗世,只有孤立的牙齿和颌骨被发现,很少有例外——保存更好但仍然不完整的化石。到了晚侏罗纪,坚齿鱼目在化石记录中变得更加常见,这一事实与化石库的存在有关,其提供了清晰的化石记录。坚齿鱼目的化石记录数量的增长仍在继续,到白垩纪晚期,它们在森诺曼阶经历了多样性的高峰。它们受到白垩纪—古近纪灭绝事件的严重打击,之后它们的多样性下降,再也没能达到灭绝事件前的水平,最终在始新世晚期(普里阿邦期)灭绝。[3]

下属分类

  • 坚齿鱼目 Pycnodontiformes (Berg, 1937)[8]
    • 属 ?Acrorhinichthys Taverne & Capasso, 2015
    • 属 ?Archaeopycnodon Sanchez & Benedetto, 1980
    • Arduafrons Frickhinger, 1991
    • 属 ?Athrodon le Sauvage 1880 non Osborn, 1887
    • 属 ?Callodus Thurmond, 1974
    • 属 ?Ellipsodus Cornuel, 1877
    • 始中齿鱼属 Eomesodon Woodward, 1918
    • 属 ?Grypodon Hay, 1899 [Ancistrodon Dames, 1883 non De Beauvois, 1799 non Roemer, 1852 non Wagler, 1830]
    • 属 ?Mercediella Koerber, 2012 [Camposichthys Figueiredo & Silva-Santos, 1991 non Travassos, 1946 non Whitley, 1953]
    • Paramesturus Taverne, 1981
    • 噬中齿鱼属 ?Piranhamesodon Kölbl-Ebert et al., 2018
    • 假坚齿鱼属 ?Pseudopycnodus Taverne, 2003
    • 属 ?Tergestinia Capasso, 2000
    • 属 ?Thurmondella Thurmond, 1974 non [Paramicrodon Thurmond, 1974 non de Meijere, 1913]
    • 属 ?Uranoplosus le Sauvage, 1879
    • 属 ?Woodthropea Swinnerton, 1925
    • 布伦德齿鱼科 Brembodontidae Tintori, 1981 [Brembodidae; Gibbodontidae Tintori, 1981]
    •  ?Hadrodontidae Thurmond & Jones, 1981
      • Hadrodus Leidy, 1858 [Propenser Applegate, 1970]
    • 环角鱼科 Gyrodontidae Berg, 1940
    • Mesturidae Nursall, 1996
      • Mesturus Wagner, 1862
    • 坚齿鱼科 PycnodontidaeAgassiz, 1833 corrig. Bonaparte, 1845 [Nursalliidae Bloy, 1987; Sphaerodontidae Giebel, 1846; Palaeobalistidae Blot, 1987; Proscinetidae Gistel, 1848; Gyronchidae]
      Fossil of Neoproscinetes penalvai
      • Abdobalistum Poyato-Ariza & Wenz, 2002
      • Acrotemnus Agassiz, 1843 (=Macropycnodon Shimada, Williamson & Sealey, 2010)
      • 属 ?Agassizilia Cooper & Martill, 2020[9]
      • Agoultpycnodus Taverne & Capasso, 2021
      • Akromystax Poyato-Ariza & Wenz, 2005
      • Anomiophthalmus Costa, 1856
      • Anomoeodus Forir, 1887
      • Apomesodon Poyato-Ariza & Wenz, 2002
      • Athrodon Sauvage, 1880
      • Brauccipycnodus Taverne & Capasso, 2021
      • Coelodus Heckel, 1854
      • Costapycnodus Taverne, Capasso & del Re, 2019
      • Flagellipinna Cawley & Kriwet, 2019
      • Gregoriopycnodus Taverne, Capasso & del Re, 2020
      • Haqelpycnodus Taverne & Capasso, 2018
      • Iemanja Wenz, 1989
      • Libanopycnodus Taverne & Capasso, 2018
      • Macromesodon Blake 1905 non Lehman, 1966 [Mesodon Wagner, 1851 non Rafinesque, 1821; Gyronchus Agassiz, 1839; Apomesodon Poyato-Ariza & Wenz, 2002]
      • Micropycnodon Hibbard & Graffham, 1945
      • 属 ?Neomesturus Cooper & Martill 2020[10]
      • Neoproscinetes De Figueiredo & Silva Santos, 1990
      • Njoerdichthys Cawley, Lehmann, Wiese & Kriwet, 2020[7]
      • Nonaphalagodus Thurmond, 1974
      • Nursallia Blot, 1987
      • Ocloedus Poyato-Ariza & Wenz, 2002
      • Omphalodus von Meyer, 1847
      • Oropycnodus Poyato-Ariza & Wenz, 2002
      • Palaeobalistum Taverne et al., 2015
      • Paranursallia Taverne et al., 2015
      • ?属 Phacodus Dixon, 1850
      • Polazzodus Poyoto-Ariza, 2010
      • Polypsephis Hay, 1899 (=Microdon Agassiz 1833 (preoccupied))
      • Potiguara Machado & Brito, 2006
      • Proscinetes Gistl, 1848 [Microdon Agassiz, 1833 non Meigen, 1803 non Fritsch, 1876 non Conrad, 1842 non Gistl, 1848 non Dixon, 1850; Polypsephis Hay, 1899]
      • Pycnodus Agassiz, 1833
      • Pycnomicrodon Hay 1916 non Hibbard & Graffham, 1941
      • Rhinopycnodus Taverne & Capasso, 2013
      • Scalacurvichthys Cawley & Kriwet, 2017
      • Sigmapycnodus Taverne & Capasso, 2018
      • Sphaerodus Agassiz, 1833
      • Sphaeronchus Stinton & Torrens, 1967
      • Stenamara Poyato-Ariza & Wenz, 2000
      • Stemmatias Hay, 1899 [Stemmatodus St. John & Worthen, 1875 non Heckel, 1854 non]
      • Stemmatodus Heckel, 1854 non St. John & Worthen, 1875 non
      • Sylvienodus Poyato-Ariza & Wenz, 2013
        Thiollierepycnodus wagneri的复原图
      • Tepexichthys Applegate, 1992
      • Tergestinia Capasso, 2000
      • Texasensis Özdikmen, 2009 (=Callodus Thurmond, 1974 (preoccupied))[11]
      • Thiollierepycnodus Ebert, 2020
      • 西藏齿鱼属 Tibetodus Young & Liu, 1954
      • Turbomesodon Poyato-Ariza & Wenz, 2004 [Macromesodon Lehman, 1966 non Blake, 1905]
      • Typodus Quenstedt, 1858
    • 拟锯脂鲤科 Serrasalmimidae Vullo et al, 2017[12]
    • 压齿鱼超科 Coccodontoidea Taverne & Capasso, 2013
      Gebrayelichthys, a bizarre coccodontoid
      • 刚果坚齿鱼属 Congopycnodus Taverne, 2019
      • 压齿鱼科 Coccodontidae Berg, 1940 [Trewavasiidae Nursall, 1996]
        • 压齿鱼属 Coccodus Pictet, 1850
        • Corusichthys Taverne & Capasso, 2014
        • 属 ?Cosmodus le Sauvage, 1879 [Glossodus Costa, 1851 non Agassiz, 1828 ex Spix & Agassiz, 1829 non McCoy, 1848]
        • Hensodon Kriwet, 2004
        • 角刺鱼属 Ichthyoceros Gayet, 1984 [13]
        • 副压齿鱼属 Paracoccodus Taverne & Capasso, 2014
        • Trewavasia White & Moy-Thomas, 1941 [Xenopholis Davis, 1887 non Peters, 1869; Xenopholoides Fowler, 1958] [13]
      • Gebrayelichthyidae Nursall & Capasso, 2004
        • Gebrayelichthys Nursall & Capasso, 2004
        • Maraldichthys Taverne & Capasso, 2014
      • 剑硬齿鱼科 Gladiopycnodontidae Taverne & Capasso, 2013[14]
        • Ducrotayichthys Taverne & Capasso, 2015
        • 剑硬齿鱼属 Gladiopycnodus Taverne & Capasso, 2013
        • Hayolperichthys Taverne & Capasso, 2015
        • Joinvillichthys Taverne & Capasso, 2014
        • Monocerichthys Taverne & Capasso, 2013
        • Pankowskichthys Taverne & Capasso, 2014
        • 喙坚齿鱼属 Rostropycnodus Taverne & Capasso, 2013
        • Stenoprotome Hay, 1903
        • Tricerichthys Taverne & Capasso, 2015

系统发生学

坚齿鱼目和其他辐鳍鱼类之间的系统发育关系尚不确定。将它们放在系统发育树上的困难源于这样一个事实,即它们是一个由大量独有衍征英语autapomorphy定义的支系,这使得它们易于识别,但也使得研究它们与其他辐鳍鱼类的关系变得困难,因为其他群体共享的特征可能会被坚齿鱼类的大量特征和多样性所混淆。[15]

以前,坚齿鱼目被认为是真骨下纲真骨形类的姐妹群,但在Poyato–Ariza于2015年进行的一项分析中,它们被发现是最基础的新鳍类,包括雀鳝目半椎鱼目巨半椎鱼目近鲱形类真骨下纲[15]

Actinopterygii
腕鳍鱼纲 Cladistia

多鳍鱼属 Polypterus

软质亚纲 Chondrostei

鲟属 Acipenser

新鳍亚纲 Neopterygii

坚齿鱼目 Pycnodontiformes

Halecosmoti
全骨下纲 Holostei
近鲱形类 Halecomorpha

Caturus

Ionoscopus

弓鳍鱼属 Amia

卡拉门普鱼属 Calamopleurus

铰齿鱼类 Ginglymodi
巨半椎鱼目 Macrosemiiformes

Macrosemius

雀鳝目 Lepisosteiformes
半椎鱼目 Semionotiformes

半椎鱼属 Semionotus

奥巴鱼属 Obaichthys

齿雀鳝属 Dentilepisosteus

梅塞尔雀鳝属 Masillosteus

Cuneatus

雀鳝属 Lepisosteus

大雀鳝属 Atractosteus

真骨形类 Teleosteomorpha

巴西骨舌鱼属 Arapaima

叉鳞鱼属 Pholidophorus

海鲢属 Elops

为了避免潜在的竞争,坚齿鱼目进化出了不同的身体和下颌形状,从而形成了一个高度多样化的目。[3]坚齿鱼科是最衍化的科,也是最大的科,由26个已知的属组成。[16]

坚齿鱼目 Pycnodontiformes

Paramesturus

Palaeobalistum

Mesturidae

小坚齿鱼属 Micropycnodon

Mesturus

环角鱼科 Gyrodontidae

环角鱼属 Gyrodus

Arduafrons

噬中齿鱼属 Piranhamesodon

Apomesodon

布伦德齿鱼科 Brembodontidae

布伦德齿鱼属 Brembodus

始中齿鱼属 Eomesodon

Gibbodon

巨中齿鱼属 Macromesodon

坚齿鱼科 Pycnodontidae

Stenamara

Proscinetinae

Turbomesodon

Turboscinetes

Thiollierepycnodus

Neoproscinetes

Proscinetes

Stemmatodus

Acromystax

Ocloedus

Lemanja

Tepexichthys

Scalacurvichthys

Polazzodus

Sylvienodus

Coelodus

Oropycnodus

坚齿鱼属 Pycnodus

努尔萨尔鱼亚科 Nursalliinae

副努尔萨尔鱼属 Paranursallia

努尔萨尔鱼属 Nursallia

Abdobalistum

参考资料

  1. ^ Pycnodontiformes. Palaeos vertebrates. [27 July 2009]. (原始内容存档于25 October 2008). 
  2. ^ Pycnodontid fishes from the Kansas Cretaceous. Oceans of Kansas. 16 April 2009 [29 July 2009]. (原始内容存档于2009-08-01). 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Cawley, John J.; Marramà, Giuseppe; Carnevale, Giorgio; Villafaña, Jaime A.; López‐Romero, Faviel A.; Kriwet, Jürgen. Rise and fall of †Pycnodontiformes: Diversity, competition and extinction of a successful fish clade. Ecology and Evolution. February 2021, 11 (4): 1769–1796. ISSN 2045-7758. PMC 7882952可免费查阅. PMID 33614003. doi:10.1002/ece3.7168 (英语). 
  4. ^ McMenamin, M. A. S. Paleotorus: The Laws of Morphogenetic Evolution. Meanma Press. 2009. ISBN 978-1-893882-18-8. 
  5. ^ Kölbl-Ebert, Martina; Ebert, Martin; Bellwood, David R.; Schulbert, Christian. A Piranha-like Pycnodontiform Fish from the Late Jurassic. Current Biology. 2018-11-05, 28 (21): 3516–3521.e2. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 30344113. S2CID 53045425. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.09.013可免费查阅 (英语). 
  6. ^ Vullo, Romain; Cavin, Lionel; Khalloufi, Bouziane; Amaghzaz, Mbarek; Bardet, Nathalie; Jalil, Nour-Eddine; Jourani, Essaid; Khaldoune, Fatima; Gheerbrant, Emmanuel. A unique Cretaceous–Paleogene lineage of piranha-jawed pycnodont fishes. Scientific Reports. 2017-07-28, 7 (1): 6802. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5533729可免费查阅. PMID 28754956. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-06792-x (英语). 
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 Cawley, John; Lehnmann, Jens; Wiese, Frank; Kriwet, Jürgen. Njoerdichthys dyckerhoffi gen. et sp. nov. (Pycnodontiformes, lower Turonian) northward migration caused by the Cretaceous Thermal Maximum. Cretaceous Research. 2020, 116 [2024-07-18]. (原始内容存档于2020-08-07). 
  8. ^ Nelson, Joseph S.; Grande, Terry C.; Wilson, Mark V. H. Fishes of the World 5th. John Wiley & Sons. 2016. ISBN 9781118342336. 
  9. ^ Cooper, Samuel L. A.; Martill, David M. A diverse assemblage of pycnodont fishes (Actinopterygii, Pycnodontiformes) from the mid-Cretaceous, continental Kem Kem Group of south-east Morocco. Cretaceous Research. 2020-08-01, 112: 104456. Bibcode:2020CrRes.11204456C. ISSN 0195-6671. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2020.104456. 
  10. ^ Cooper, S.L.A. and Martill, D.M. (2020). "Pycnodont fishes (Actinopterygii: Pycnodontiformes) from the Upper Cretaceous (lower Turonian) Akrabou Formation of Asfla, Morocco" Cretaceous Research 116, 104607
  11. ^ Özdikmen, H. Texasensis nom. nov., a new name for the preoccupied fossil fish genus Callodus Thurmond, 1974 (Osteichthyes: Pycnodontiformes). Texasensis Nom. Nov., A New Name for the Preoccupied Fossil Fish Genus Callodus Thurmond, 1974 (Osteichthyes: Pycnodontiformes). 2009-01-06, 4 (2): 616 [2024-07-18]. ISSN 1306-3022. (原始内容存档于2024-06-01) (英语). 
  12. ^ Vullo, Romain; Cavin, Lionel; Khalloufi, Bouziane; Amaghzaz, Mbarek; Bardet, Nathalie; Jalil, Nour-Eddine; Jourani, Essaid; Khaldoune, Fatima; Gheerbrant, Emmanuel. A unique Cretaceous-Paleogene lineage of piranha-jawed pycnodont fishes. Scientific Reports. 2017-07-28, 7 (1): 6802. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5533729可免费查阅. PMID 28754956. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-06792-x. 
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 L. Taverne; L. Capasso. Ostéologie et phylogénie des Coccodontidae, une famille remarquable de poissons Pycnodontiformes du Crétacé supérieur marin du Liban, avec la description de deux nouveaux genres. Palaeontos. 2014, 25 [2016-07-05]. (原始内容存档于2017-07-05). 
  14. ^ Taverne, Louis; Capasso, Luigi. Gladiopycnodontidae, a new family of pycnodontiform fishes from the Late Cretaceous of Lebanon, with the description of three genera. European Journal of Taxonomy. 2013-10-02, (57). ISSN 2118-9773. doi:10.5852/ejt.2013.57 (英语). 
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Poyato-Ariza, Francisco. Studies on Pycnodontid fishes (I): Evaluation of their phylogenetic position among actinopterygians. Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia. 2015, 121 (3): 329–343. 
  16. ^ Ebert, Martin. A new genus of Pycnodontidae (Actinopterygii) from the Upper Jurassic of France and Germany, included in a phylogeny of Pycnodontiformes. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 2020, 188 (2): 434–454. 

Read other articles:

Perlindungan dari pemindahan Untuk wilayah biogeografi Indomalaya yang mencakup Malaysia di dalamnya, lihat Malesia. Malaysiaمليسيا Bendera Lambang Semboyan: Bersekutu Bertambah Mutu[1] (Bahasa Indonesia: Persatuan Menambah Keunggulan)Lagu kebangsaan:  Negaraku Perlihatkan BumiPerlihatkan peta ASEANPerlihatkan peta BenderaLokasi  Malaysia  (hijau)di ASEAN  (abu-abu tua)  –  [Legenda]Ibu kota(dan kota terbesar)Kuala Lumpur3�...

 

GoesMunisipalitas / kota BenderaLambang kebesaranNegaraBelandaProvinsiZeelandLuas(2006) • Total102,09 km2 (3,942 sq mi) • Luas daratan92,84 km2 (3,585 sq mi) • Luas perairan9,24 km2 (357 sq mi)Populasi (1 Januari 2007) • Total36.623 • Kepadatan394/km2 (1,020/sq mi) Source: CBS, Statline.Zona waktuUTC+1 (CET) • Musim panas (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)Kode area telepon0113 Go...

 

У этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Фунт (денежная единица). Египетский фунт[a] араб. جنيه مصري‎ англ. Egyptian Pound[b] фр. Livre égyptienne[b] Банкнота в 200 фунтов 2010 года (лицевая сторона) Коды и символы Коды ISO 4217 EGP (818) Символы .ج.م • LE Территория обраще�...

Football stadium in Bern, Switzerland WankdorfstadionWankdorf StadiumThe stadium during demolition in 2001LocationPapiermühlestrasse 71CH-3014 BernCapacity22,000–64,000 (football)SurfaceGrassConstructionBroke ground1925Opened18 October 1925Closed7 July 2001Demolished3 August 2001TenantsBSC Young Boys (1925–2001) Wankdorf Stadium (German: Wankdorfstadion, pronounced [ˈvaŋkdɔʁfˌʃtaːdi̯ɔn] ⓘ) was a football stadium in Bern, Switzerland, and the home of Swiss club BSC Youn...

 

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Scenery generator – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (...

 

Disambiguazione – Se stai cercando il singolo dei Tiromancino, vedi L'ultimo treno della notte (singolo). L'ultimo treno della notteEnrico Maria Salerno in una scena del filmLingua originaleitaliano Paese di produzioneItalia Anno1975 Durata94 min Generedrammatico, thriller RegiaAldo Lado SoggettoRoberto Infascelli ed Ettore Sanzò SceneggiaturaAldo Lado e Renato Izzo Casa di produzioneEuropean Corporation FotografiaGábor Pogány MontaggioAlberto Gallitti MusicheEnnio Morricone Scenogr...

2020 American horror drama television series Lovecraft CountryGenre Black horror[1] Period drama Supernatural horror[2] Science fiction Based onLovecraft Countryby Matt RuffDeveloped byMisha GreenShowrunnerMisha GreenStarring Jurnee Smollett Jonathan Majors Aunjanue Ellis Courtney B. Vance Wunmi Mosaku Abbey Lee Jamie Chung Jada Harris Michael K. Williams Music byLaura Karpman and Raphael SaadiqEnding themeSinnerman by Alice SmithCountry of originUnited StatesOriginal language...

 

Pour les articles homonymes, voir Lavelanet-de-Comminges. Lavelanet Lavelanet vu du Roc de la Gourgue. Blason Administration Pays France Région Occitanie Département Ariège Arrondissement Pamiers Intercommunalité Communauté de communes du Pays d'Olmes(siège) Maire Mandat Marc Sanchez 2020-2026 Code postal 09300 Code commune 09160 Démographie Gentilé Lavelanétiens Populationmunicipale 6 035 hab. (2021 ) Densité 480 hab./km2 Population agglomération 6 957 ha...

 

يفتقر محتوى هذه المقالة إلى الاستشهاد بمصادر. فضلاً، ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة من خلال إضافة مصادر موثوق بها. أي معلومات غير موثقة يمكن التشكيك بها وإزالتها. (مارس 2016) مناطق التواجد هذه القائمة تحتوي على سطارفة (مرزبانات) الأخمينيين ثم ملوكها الهلنستيين في كبادوكيا، المنطق�...

Si ce bandeau n'est plus pertinent, retirez-le. Cliquez ici pour en savoir plus. Cet article ne cite pas suffisamment ses sources (août 2015). Si vous disposez d'ouvrages ou d'articles de référence ou si vous connaissez des sites web de qualité traitant du thème abordé ici, merci de compléter l'article en donnant les références utiles à sa vérifiabilité et en les liant à la section « Notes et références ». En pratique : Quelles sources sont attendues ? Com...

 

Men's 50 metre breaststroke at the 2016 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m)VenueWFCU CentreDates10 December (heats and semifinals)11 December (final)Competitors96 from 73 nationsWinning time25.64Medalists  Cameron van der Burgh   South Africa Peter Stevens   Slovenia Felipe Lima   Brazil← 20142018 → 2016 FINA World Swimming ChampionshipsFreestyle50 mmenwomen100 mmenwomen200 mmenwomen400 mmenwomen...

 

Flemish painter (c. 1605–1638) Adriaen BrouwerAdriaen Brouwer, a c. 1631 portrait by Anthony van DyckBornc. 1605/1606Oudenaarde, BelgiumDiedJanuary 1638Antwerp, BelgiumNationalityFlemishKnown forPaintingMovementBaroque Adriaen Brouwer[1] (c. 1605 – January 1638) was a Flemish painter active in Flanders and the Dutch Republic in the first half of the 17th century.[2][3] Brouwer was an important innovator of genre painting through his vivid depiction...

NGC 2261 صورة NGC 2261 بواسطة تلسكوب هابل الفضائي.Credit: HST/ناسا/مختبر الدفع النفاث. بيانات الرصد: J2000.0 حقبة النوع reflection المطلع المستقيم 6سا 39د 10ث[1] الميل الزاوي +8° 45′[1] المسافة 2500 سنة ضوئية القدر الظاهري (V) 9.0 الأبعاد الظاهرية (V) 2′ الكوكبة وحيد القرن الصفات الفيز�...

 

Self-balancing single wheel personal transporter Self-balancing unicycles at 'Paris sans Voiture' (Paris without cars), September 2015 An electric unicycle (often initialized as EUC or acronymized yuke or Uni) is a self-balancing personal transporter with a single wheel. The rider controls speed by leaning forwards or backwards, and steers by twisting or tilting the unit side to side. The self-balancing mechanism uses accelerometers and gyroscopes.[1] Most manufacturers of EUCs are ba...

 

Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness This article is about the science of healing. For medicaments, see Medication. For other uses, see Medicine (disambiguation). Medical redirects here. Medical is also the common informal term for a medical examination, q.v. Flag of World Health Organization featuring Rod of Asclepius, a common symbol for medicine and health care Medicine is the science[1] and practice[2] of caring for patients, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, p...

Le désert de Tabernas dans le sud de l'Espagne est l'unique véritable désert d'Europe occidentale selon la classification de Köppen et son expansion en raison du réchauffement climatique[1] est emblématique du phénomène de désertification. L'aridification précède souvent la désertification. La désertification est un processus, naturel ou non, de dégradation des sols qui a pour origine des changements climatiques et/ou les conséquences des activités humaines. Il s'ensuit une ar...

 

RiverVatrakLocationCountryIndiaStateGujarat, RajasthanPhysical characteristicsMouth  • coordinates22°39′14″N 72°32′34″E / 22.6539°N 72.5429°E / 22.6539; 72.5429Length243 kilometers The Vatrak is a tributary of the Sabarmati River which flows for 243 kilometers in Gujarat, India.[1] It originates in the hills of Dungarpur, Rajasthan and enters in Gujarat near village Moydi of Meghraj taluka.[1] Basin Vatrak run paral...

 

تحتاج النصوص المترجمة في هذه المقالة إلى مراجعة لضمان معلوماتها وإسنادها وأسلوبها ومصطلحاتها ووضوحها للقارئ، لأنها تشمل ترجمة اقتراضية أو غير سليمة. فضلاً ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة بمراجعة النصوص وإعادة صياغتها بما يتناسب مع دليل الأسلوب في ويكيبيديا. (أغسطس 2016) اضغط هنا ...

Voce principale: Ballspielverein Borussia 09 Dortmund. Ballspielverein Borussia 09 DortmundStagione 1978-1979Sport calcio Squadra Borussia Dortmund Allenatore Carl-Heinz Rühl (1ª-29ª) Uli Maslo (30ª-34ª) Bundesliga12º posto Coppa di GermaniaOttavi di finale Maggiori presenzeCampionato: Votava, Huber, Schneider (34)Totale: Votava, Huber, Schneider (39) Miglior marcatoreCampionato: Burgsmüller (15)Totale: Burgsmüller (20) StadioWestfalenstadion Maggior numero di spettatori46 ...

 

Axel ZitzmannNazionalità Germania Est Salto con gli sci Termine carriera1981 Palmarès Competizione Ori Argenti Bronzi Mondiali di volo 0 1 0 Vedi maggiori dettagli  Modifica dati su Wikidata · Manuale Axel Zitzmann (21 febbraio 1959) è un ex saltatore con gli sci tedesco orientale. Indice 1 Biografia 2 Palmarès 2.1 Mondiali di volo 2.2 Coppa del Mondo 3 Collegamenti esterni Biografia In Coppa del Mondo esordì il 30 dicembre 1980 a Oberstdorf (63°) e ottenne l'unico podio...