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伊斯蘭教与基督教同为亚伯拉罕宗教，都是一神論宗教，而且许多人物的形象在《圣经》与《古兰经》中可以互相对应；然而，伊斯蘭教與基督教在教義上之間的差别也相当大。

观念

相同之處

基督教和伊斯蘭教都相信神是唯一的。《古蘭經》中許多的內容皆與《聖經》所提及的有關。

不同之處

關於神的位格的爭論

雖然伊斯蘭教承認所謂其內容未被篡改的《舊約聖經》及《新約聖經》是真主所降示的，但是在伊斯蘭教教義中，亞伯拉罕帶上山欲獻給神的，不是《聖經》所記載的以撒，而是以實瑪利。伊斯蘭教許多的觀點與《塔納赫》內容相衝突。

伊斯蘭教認為爾撒是其地位低於穆罕默德的地位的先知且不具神性。伊斯蘭教認為基督教放棄了唯一神論的立場，故犯下了認可多神論這項大罪，伊斯蘭教教導説，真主阿拉不會與任何一者分享祂的神聖屬性。根據認主學理論，伊斯蘭教不允許其教眾將所謂的伴侶與真主聯繫起來。伊斯蘭教把三位一體論解釋為三位三體論，因而宣稱基督舊教是三神論宗教。居住在土耳其的伊斯蘭教徒把基督教教義中的神稱為登曷哩。另一方面，主流基督教宣稱神格惟一論是異端邪説。

基督教認為亞伯拉罕、以撒、雅各伯所崇信的至高神是基督徒所崇信的惟一真神，再沒有別的神。因為基督教所崇信的救主（耶穌基督）被認為是天主亞威的獨生子，是跟祂的父（天父）為一的，所以其認為沒有偏離一神論的問題。早期基督教教內曾經發生過很多關於這些神學觀點的爭論。

關於先知的爭論

伊斯蘭教認為所有教典的作者都是真主阿拉所派遣的，再啟示給其使者以宣揚其思想，而不是人所憑空創作出來的，《古蘭經》內容的準確度會受到真主所保持。伊斯蘭教徒傳統上相信穆罕默德是真主派遣的最後使者，他本人是位文盲，伊斯蘭教徒不認為穆罕默德有抄襲過基督教或猶太教的教義，或曾吸收其神學思想，而是重申了多年來被基督教和猶太教改動了的教誨，也認為三個宗教的神學觀點有相似的原因正在於此。另一方面，基督教徒在對於穆罕默德的看法上有分歧，一些基督教徒認為穆罕默德是有善意的但接受了錯誤的啟示的申言者，一些基督教徒則認為穆罕默德是妖言惑眾的偽先見者。有基督教徒甚至認為穆罕默德是受到邪惡的邪靈達加爾所操控的^[1]。

關於超自然生靈的爭論

伊斯蘭教認為世上除了凡人之外，還有被真主以無煙的火燄造生出來的鎮尼，後者如同前者一樣能夠選擇接受正確的信仰，從而得到進入詹那的機會，鎮尼有仁善的，也有殘惡的，信奉伊斯蘭教的神學家對其有着不同的看法，而在伊斯蘭教神話中被真主以來自於火獄的毒火造生出來的妖靈（djinn）中最有名的一位是阿札齊爾（英语：Azazil），祂曾經得到真主的寵幸，但在拒絶向原祖亞丹下跪之後，阿札齊爾被真主驅逐，其被稱為伊布力斯並成為了沙但（英语：Shaitan）的首領，這些沙但致力引誘世人犯罪。雅茲迪教則認為衰但（Shaytan）已經因向基督表達悔意一事而成為天使。伊斯蘭教認為沙但可能會引誘凡人使用邪術，或者假扮為異教神話中的神祇以引誘凡人崇拜自己。

基督教教內有不同的關於超自然生靈的觀點，其中一個觀點認為除了神靈、天使、煉靈及拉弗拉姆（英语：Rephaite#Long dead ancestors）（Raphraim, 居住在陰間中的亡者的魂神）等等之外，其餘的超自然生靈極有可能皆為墮天使、魔鬼或鬼魔，如果異教神話中的神祇不是假神，便是魔鬼或鬼魔所假扮而為的，就連鬼魂也是鬼魔所假扮而為的。

更古老的以法蓮教可能認可獨神論，由於上主多次被稱為萬神之神，因此其可能認為異教所崇拜的一些神祇是真實的，但其認為祂們都是不值得被崇拜的偽神，唯有上主是應該被敬拜的眞神^[2]，或者將祂們視為與天使及星辰一同組成天軍但被無知的異教徒視為神祇的天祇（mal'ak）。《依撒意亞先知書》第二十四章預言説天上的萬軍及地上的君王都會被關押並被懲罰^[3]。此外，宗教學家就關於《詩篇》第八十二章（英语：Psalms 82）所提及的被上主（英语：God in Judaism）譴責的、組成神聖議會（英语：Divine Council）的神般生靈（Godlike Creatur）的身份的問題爭論不休，一些學者認為其可能是指有權勢的凡人或被任命為守護特定民族的天祗的護國天使。信奉基督教的著名宗教史學家麥可·海瑟（英语：Michael S. Heiser）博士聲稱這一章所提及的衆神確實是指天上的諸神，而非凡人或三一神的其他位格，但他聲稱這不意味着其在宣揚多神論，原因是《塔納赫》把這些所謂的次級神祗描述為原本被上主命令去掌管天下萬國卻因反抗天主的統治一事而被受到懲罰的天上的權君（powers in the heavens）^[4]。此外，《列王紀(上)》第二十二章提到米該雅先知看見天上萬軍（英语：Heavenly host）侍立在上主面前一事，當中包括被上主派去引誘撒瑪利亞王國國王阿哈布帶兵攻打亞蘭王國的諸靈，不知道後者是不是天使。《妥拉》所提及的哈-撒但（Ha-Satan）被視為一位魔般天使（diabolical angel），負責試探凡人，但值得注意的是祂是奉上主之命去行事，而不是在直接對抗上主。現今猶太教在關於魔鬼及鬼魔的觀點上有不少分歧，一些猶太教徒認為祂們是真實存在的，另一些猶太教徒認為關於祂們的故事只是隱喻。

關於教典的爭論

伊斯蘭教的觀點認為爾撒先知從真主阿拉那裡獲得了《引支勒》（伊斯蘭教教義中其內容未被篡改的福音書）；傳統上，伊斯蘭教認為猶太教聖典《希伯來聖經》與基督教聖典《聖經》的現有內容是已經被篡改了的，因此在伊斯蘭教教典中，穆斯林稱猶太徒與基督徒為有經者。

基督教觀點是耶穌基督是真理、是生命、是道路；而傳統認為福音書是使徒門徒記錄了救主耶穌基督的生平。基督教徒相信除了經書之外還有聖靈，或稱真理的靈。基督教徒相信《聖經》是神所默示的〔上主雅威將祂的氣息吹進《聖經》〕，基督教徒對於《聖經》的用法是使用它教訓教導、督責、使人歸正、教人學義、使屬神的人變得完全虔誠、行善事等，不是將其用作處死別人的手段。

關於《聖經》及《古蘭經》的內容的真確性也是兩個宗教之間的爭論的主題之一。

即使相信大衛作了相當的詩篇，至少有一篇是在大衛出生以後500年所寫的。《詩篇》約有三分之一的部份是佚名的^[5]。

對伊斯蘭教傳統來説，一個更大的問題是，這個銘文上的薩比安文日期是公元552年。根據最新的學術研究，阿伯拉哈死於公元553年或此後不久，但根據穆斯林所提出的說法，穆罕默德出生於公元570年，所以如果我們想相信關於亞伯拉罕的穆斯林式傳統，我們就必須把穆罕默德的誕生推後15年、16年甚至18年。這對早期伊斯蘭教的大部份歷史產生了巨大的影響。如果穆罕默德早出生18年，那麼穆罕默德甚麼時候開始接受啟示？遷徙何時發生？穆罕默德是甚麼時候死去的？各場戰爭何時發生？這可能會擾亂穆斯林對於其早期歷史的所有看法。此外，這可能會對許多伊斯蘭教傳統產生懷疑。他們所謂的「聖訓」的真確性不可信，因為「傳播鏈」現在可能被打破——穆罕默德一生中的大多數事件都被推遲了18年，而鏈條中的某個地方必然會出現缺口^[6]。
——安德魯·瓦戈，〈拉黑馬南 (RHMNN) - 古時南阿拉伯月亮神？〉

衝突

历史

原因

基督教及猶太教與伊斯蘭教之間的古今衝突，其實各方面都有責任，除了大眾媒體普遍認為的 “信仰衝突”外，其實更多是政治因素如族群之間資源分配不均引致雙方爭奪對立，或基督教、穆斯林地區的當地政治需要，統治者借宗教為借口轉移民眾視線，從中漁利，加劇三教族群衝突，如十字軍東侵及恐怖主義盛行一事這些政治因素。

伊斯蘭教徒所持有的觀點

據傳在公元六世紀，先後以猶太教及基督教為國教的希木葉爾王國曾經派兵試圖攻佔當時仍為異教崇拜中心的麥加以摧毀卡巴神廟，但最後以失敗告終。在伊斯蘭教傳説中，真主挫敗了這些攻擊者的企圖，這一年被稱為象年，伊斯蘭教宣稱那一年正是穆罕默德先知的出生年份。

當穆罕默德先知開始宣揚伊斯蘭信仰之後，他及其追隨者便開始與居住在阿拉伯半島的基督教徒及猶太教徒發生衝突。

自公元636年起，三教的发源地圣都耶路撒冷就被以伊斯兰教為國教的阿拉伯帝国统治，屬於遜尼派的塞尔柱人兴起之初便開始迫害居住在中东地区的基督教徒。

信奉希臘正教的東羅馬帝国皇帝亚历克塞一世向罗马教会和西欧诸国的求援，促使想统一基督教世界、建立权威及压制神圣罗马帝国皇帝和诸国君主的天主教教皇乌尔班二世发动十字軍東征。

十字軍計劃收復聖都耶路撒冷，對穆斯林進行清洗。單在一所清真寺裡，就有約1萬名避難者慘遭屠戮。一個十字軍騎士寫給教皇的信里說，他騎馬走過屍體狼藉的地方，血流漂杵，血跡染上馬腿，甚至到馬膝。寺院、宮殿和民間的金銀財物被搶劫一空，許許多多的古玩與藝術品被毁。這場屠殺以後，十字軍到“聖墓”前去敬拜耶穌基督，然後又開始新的燒殺虜掠。《耶路撒冷史》記載說，十字軍占領該城後，對穆斯林不分男女老幼實行了慘絕人寰的三日大屠殺。“勇士們”爲了掠取黄金，剖開死人的肚皮到連內臟都不放過。後來，因死人太多，乾脆把死人堆架起來燒成灰燼。儘量如此，不過十字軍東征是由天主教國家所發動的，而且以伊斯蘭教為國教的魯姆蘇丹國曾經與十字軍結盟。更正教的很多信奉者並不認可十字軍東征^[7]。更正教的一些信奉者也認為任意發動戰爭這個行為違反了更正教教理^[8]。

伊斯蘭教的責任

穆罕默德先知的品行

一些基要主義者聲稱與耶書亞拉比相比，穆罕默德先知的品格是遠遠惡劣得多的，他們指責穆罕默德先知帶兵殺戮了他的敵人，又強姦了女性囚犯^[9]，還娶了只有九歲的女孩並馬上與她完房，而且提倡所謂的吉哈德^[10]。

打壓其他宗教

有批評者指出在伊斯蘭教的統治下，基督教和猶太教雖然可以存在，可是其信徒的宗教活動很受限制，而且在某程度上使生活在伊斯蘭教國家的基督徒和猶太人感到自己是二等公民，使得不少伊斯蘭國家的基督徒和猶太人為爭取在社會上有較高的地位一事而放棄信仰，皈依伊斯蘭教。雖然基督教徒和猶太教徒是二等公民，但是他們是有經者。在伊斯蘭教國家國內，有經者被視為齊米，即受保護民。然而，一些比較激進的伊斯蘭教徒可能會把他們視為《古蘭經》所提及的卡菲爾。

以下是伊斯蘭國家對猶太人和基督徒在伊斯蘭統治之下的規條，參見自奧瑪法規：

要繳付人頭稅（《古蘭經》第九章二十九節）和地稅。
不准參軍。
不得建造新的教堂和會堂，只可以更新舊的。
禁止在房屋或教堂上高舉十字架。
不可以在公開场合進行宗教活動。
所建造及居住的房屋不得高於穆斯林所建造的。
所穿的衣服不得與穆斯林相同，必須佩戴徽章以為識別。
禁止騎馬，只可以騎騾跟驢還有駱駝。
對穆斯林表示尊敬，例如讓座。
若一個穆斯林殺死一個非穆斯林，不需判死刑。（《布哈里聖訓實錄》4:52:283^[11]、9:83:50^[12]）；反之，若一個非穆斯林殺死一個穆斯林，就要接受伊斯蘭律法被判為死罪。
根據《古蘭經》四章一百四十一節及六十三章八節，不准異教徒作為僱主管轄穆斯林，猶太人和基督徒這些異教徒也是沒有尊榮的。
穆斯林不要以猶太人和基督徒為盟友。（《古蘭經》五章五十一節）
穆斯林不應和非穆斯林相親相愛。（《古蘭經》五十八章二十二節）

根據伊斯蘭律法學家^{[來源請求]}指出，還有以下的條例：

不得穿綠色衣服。
不得傳播福音。
不准大聲祈禱和誦經，以免被穆斯林聽見。
不得公開發售其宗教書籍，只可以在他們當中發行。
不可以使用電台、電視台或是報紙、雜誌等傳播媒介，播出及刊出他們的宗教儀式。
在伊斯蘭法庭中的見證不具穆斯林的同等法律效力。
不得攜帶自己的武器。
隔離在少數民族的居住區，讓他們在政治及經濟上成為社會的下層。

主張屠殺猶太徒

《穆斯林聖訓實錄》記載穆罕默德說過將來穆斯林一定會與猶太徒交戰，最終穆斯林必定會殲滅他們，甚至連石頭和樹木都會說話，叫穆斯林快來殺死猶太徒^[13]。

主張發動宗教戰爭

伊斯蘭教教內的瓦哈比派是一個奉信伊斯蘭原教旨主義的極端教派。除此之外，伊斯蘭教的很多信奉者都擁護吉哈德主義。

瓦哈比派的創立者穆罕默德·伊本·阿卜杜勒·瓦哈卜伊瑪目早年曾經多次猛烈批評他眼中崇拜偶像的伊斯蘭教信奉者，導致遜尼派人士多次驅逐他^[14]，但反而使得他回到家鄉並創立了瓦哈比派，並且四處破壞因被當作聖物一事而受到敬奉的東西和殺害違反宗教律法的人^[15]^[16]，導致苏莱曼·伊本·穆罕默德·伊本·古赖尔酋長試圖壓制其勢力冒起^[17]^[18]，卻使他與德拉伊耶埃米爾穆罕默德·本·沙烏地結盟並建立了擁護瓦哈比派的德拉伊耶酋長國^[19]。德拉伊耶酋長國派兵到處掠劫他人，他們奪取了屬於其他教派的伊斯蘭教信奉者所擁有的財產，沙烏地及瓦哈卜過着窮奢極侈的生活，並且聲稱這是真主的恩賜。

在瓦哈卜去世之後，德拉伊耶酋長國繼續擴張版圖、攻陷了波斯的卡爾巴拉城、洗劫了伊瑪目海珊聖陵並屠殺了四千餘人，包括婦女及兒童^[20]。德拉伊耶酋長國在多年間到處製造混亂，直到屬於阿勒維派的鄂圖曼哈里發國帕夏穆罕默德·阿里帕夏伯魯克巴希率兵在1818年成功消滅了德拉伊耶酋長國^[21]。雖然此舉抑制了瓦哈比派的勢力擴張，但是沒能完全消滅它。沙烏地族在1932年建立了沙特阿拉伯王國^[22]並繼續與謝赫族合作。這個國家自建國之日起便嚴格地依照瓦哈比派思想統治國民^[23]。沙特阿拉伯王國嚴格地限制婦女所擁有的權利^[24]。雖然薩勒曼國王即位後，不平等現象已經減少，但是該國仍在使用酷刑、斬首及石刑等死刑行刑方法^[25]。現今沙特阿拉伯王國仍然十分擁護瓦哈比派，每年耗費大量資金在國外宣揚瓦哈比派思想，導致伊斯蘭恐怖主義持續對歐美國家造成威脅^[26]。現今瓦哈比派主張消滅其眼中伊斯蘭教教內的異端份子和對所謂的異教徒發動聖戰^[27]，並且主張以伊斯蘭教的名義征服世界^[28]。

參見

参考文献

^ Nattan, Stephen Van. CHAPTER NINETEEN: Mohammed's Evil Spirit-- Dajjal. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-26] （英语）.
^ Top God. TV Tropes. [2024-10-26]. The Judeo-Christian God could be considered a god of gods if you consider the angels and demons as lesser gods, which would make the Archangels as kings of the gods. Early Jewish thought seemed to consider all gods as being real, but all except Yahweh are evil impostors, with Yahweh being the one true god. Later though, in Jeremiah, God only refers to some of the gods as actual creatures that he will punish, like Amon, while most, like Chemosh, are idols based on someone's imagination. Starting in the beginnings of the Medieval Period and continuing into today, this separated into two approaches in most of Europe: many European (and American) Christian church bureaucracies have taken the official view or Sacred Tradition that other (pagan) gods are merely disguises for demons, adding that our (humanity and angels) task is to become gods through an obedience to God and atonement (for humans) by which He will do that; whereas many European (and American) Christian thinkers and philosophers have taken instead the view that the gods of other religions were angelic underlings of God who had been mistaken for deities by "less enlightened" peoples. This latter viewpoint is most familiar to American readers in the Christian cosmologies presented by J.R.R. Tolkien in his famous Legendarium with its Valar, Maiar, and Istari and by C.S. Lewis in his Narnia Chronicles which include appearances by the wine god Bacchus, an untamed river god, the living embodiment of Time, and a Father Christmas praising Aslan!
^ 「到那一天，上主要在高天審視天上所有的軍旅，要在下地察考地上所有的君主。他們將被聚集起來，關在深坑內，監禁在監牢裡；待過了許多時日，將受懲罰。」－出自《聖經·舊約·依撒意亞先知書》第二十四章第二十一節至第二十二節
^ Michael S. Heiser. Divine Council 101: Lesson 2: The elohim of Psalm 82 – gods or men? (PDF). Lastly, verses such as Isaiah 24:21 (“In that day the LORD will punish the powers in the heavens above and the kings on the earth below”) clearly distinguish between the divine beings of Yahweh’s host and earthly rulers. What this means is that the Hebrew Bible had a definite way of distinguishing the divine beings (the powers – plural – in heaven) from humans. It makes little sense to make Psalm 82 unclear if such a contrast between gods and humans were the goal. Why confuse people by using elohim if you wanted to refer to humans?
^ Introductory notes in "The Insight Bible", an NIV Bible with study notes published by Zondervan
^ Vargo, Andrew. Rebuttals to Islamic Awareness : Rahmanan (RHMNN) - An Ancient South Arabian Moon God?. Answering Islam. [2024-10-09] （英语）. The "Islamic Awareness" team attempts to convince us that Muhammad's ar-Rahman is really no different than the Christian and Jewish uses of similar epithets for God. As Sam Shamoun pointed out in his article on ar-Rahman, it is clear that the people of Mecca did not recognize ar-Rahman as the God of the Christians and the Jews. The Christian inscriptions presented by the "Islamic Awareness" clearly shows that the authors were describing the Triune God – not Muhammad's concept of Allah.
^ Nattan, Stephen Van. Appendix 5: Is Allah the moon god as claimed by Robert Morey?. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-13] （英语）. As a side note here, Robert Morey is of the Reformed church background. It is a curious thing then why he chooses to use Bible versions other than the Bibles of the Reformers-- The King James Bible and Luther's Bible. I also note that he has a Crusader's Club. Why choose this imagery when the Roman Catholic Whore used the virtual same title for her mongrel mass of filthy soldiers who attacked the Islamic peoples of the Middle East long ago? Why? The word "crusader" is not a biblical word.
^ Nattan, Stephen Van. Robert Morey-- Arab Basher-- Morey's "allah is the Moon god" Heresy. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-13] （英语）. Dr. Robert Morey of http://www.faithdefenders.com is known for his radical views of indorsing Christians to bomb the Muslim city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia (so much for Christianity being peaceful and loving), and of spinning the infamous Moon God Theory which was easily refuted here. Because of his extremist views against Islam, he has been embraced by many fanatical Evangelical Christian groups.
^ Nattan, Stephen Van. Chapter Seventeen － Mohammed's Claims for Himself. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-14] （英语）. We are reminded at once of Mohammed's "virtue" as he consummated his battlefield "marriage" to a Jewish captive, Safiya, in a sand dune with the gore and filth of battle all over him. Virtuous actions no doubt, though it is today called rape-- virtuous, even though he broke his own Hadith sharia law to wait until after her next monthly!
^ Nattan, Stephen Van. Appendix Ten: What do Islam and Mainline Christianity Have in Common?. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-14] （英语）. The standard of Islam is similar. Muslim men would never allow their wives or daughters to go out uncovered, and they make sure they are modest at all times. These same men, when out of town on business, will visit whores and sodomite pimps, and they will always visit restaurants that provide belly dancers. This goes back to Mohammed. He would not permit the women to go uncovered in public, but he married a nine year old girl and consummated the marriage at once. This would be seen today as wicked, but in the prophet, well, it is OK because he was so holy in other areas of his life. ... This is why Osama bin Laden is approved by nearly all Muslims. There is nothing in the teachings of Mohammed and the Koran which approves or disapproves of what Osama did. So, the best Muslim can rejoice at the death and suffering in the World Trade Center. Did not Mohammed exalt Jihad in the Hadith. The number of Hadith on Jihad is greater than any other subject in the Hadith.
^ Fighting for the Cause of Allah (Jihaad) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 52.
^ Blood Money (Ad-Diyat) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 83.
^ 《穆斯林聖訓實錄》41:6981、41:6985，見The Book Pertaining to the Turmoil and Portents of the Last Hour (Kitab Al-Fitan wa Ashrat As-Sa`ah) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆），Translation of Sahih Muslim，Book 41。
^ The Life Account of Shaykh Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab and Ibn Sa‘ud. [2018-12-09]. （原始内容存档于2018-12-08）.
^ Lacey 1983: 56
^ DeLong-Bas 2004: 24
^ DeLong-Bas 2004: 24
^ ibn 'Hajar: 28
^ DeLong-Bas 2004: 34
^ Vassiliev, Alexei. The History of Saudi Arabia. Saqi. 2013 [2018-12-15]. ISBN 9780863567797. （原始内容存档于2020-05-10）.
^ Khatab, Sayed. Understanding Islamic Fundamentalism: The Theological and Ideological Basis of Al-Qa'ida's Political Tactics. Oxford University Press. 2011: 73–74 [2018-12-06]. ISBN 9789774164996. （原始内容存档于2020-05-10）.
^ Bowen 2008，第83頁
^ Democracy index 2012 Democracy at a standstill (PDF). The Economist Intelligence Unit. 2012 [2015-09-26]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-03-20）.
^ Six things women in Saudi Arabia cannot do （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） The Week 2017-09-27
^ BBC news: Saudi 'torture' condemned by UN. BBC. [2008-03-23]. （原始内容存档于2008-03-08）（英语）.
^ 龚小夏. 小夏看美国:西方多元社会面临恐怖挑战. 美國之音. 2015-02-02 [2015-12-31]. （原始内容存档于2015-12-29）. 自1975年以来，沙特阿拉伯每年在国外花费大约二十至三十亿美元去建立宣扬瓦哈比派教义的清真寺与《古兰经》学校。
^ 俄罗斯政府并未真正解决车臣问题和平靠“维持”. 鳳凰網. 2013-07-01 [2016-10-18]. （原始内容存档于2020-06-08）（中文）.
^ 龚小夏. 小夏看美国:西方多元社会面临恐怖挑战. 美國之音. 2015-02-02 [2015-12-31]. （原始内容存档于2015-12-29）. 瓦哈比教派力主圣战，用伊斯兰来征服世界。

外部連結

耶穌、耶和華、阿拉，關係為何？

[1] Nattan, Stephen Van. CHAPTER NINETEEN: Mohammed's Evil Spirit-- Dajjal. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-26] （英语）.

[2] Top God. TV Tropes. [2024-10-26]. The Judeo-Christian God could be considered a god of gods if you consider the angels and demons as lesser gods, which would make the Archangels as kings of the gods. Early Jewish thought seemed to consider all gods as being real, but all except Yahweh are evil impostors, with Yahweh being the one true god. Later though, in Jeremiah, God only refers to some of the gods as actual creatures that he will punish, like Amon, while most, like Chemosh, are idols based on someone's imagination. Starting in the beginnings of the Medieval Period and continuing into today, this separated into two approaches in most of Europe: many European (and American) Christian church bureaucracies have taken the official view or Sacred Tradition that other (pagan) gods are merely disguises for demons, adding that our (humanity and angels) task is to become gods through an obedience to God and atonement (for humans) by which He will do that; whereas many European (and American) Christian thinkers and philosophers have taken instead the view that the gods of other religions were angelic underlings of God who had been mistaken for deities by "less enlightened" peoples. This latter viewpoint is most familiar to American readers in the Christian cosmologies presented by J.R.R. Tolkien in his famous Legendarium with its Valar, Maiar, and Istari and by C.S. Lewis in his Narnia Chronicles which include appearances by the wine god Bacchus, an untamed river god, the living embodiment of Time, and a Father Christmas praising Aslan!

[3] 「到那一天，上主要在高天審視天上所有的軍旅，要在下地察考地上所有的君主。他們將被聚集起來，關在深坑內，監禁在監牢裡；待過了許多時日，將受懲罰。」－出自《聖經·舊約·依撒意亞先知書》第二十四章第二十一節至第二十二節

[4] Michael S. Heiser. Divine Council 101: Lesson 2: The elohim of Psalm 82 – gods or men? (PDF). Lastly, verses such as Isaiah 24:21 (“In that day the LORD will punish the powers in the heavens above and the kings on the earth below”) clearly distinguish between the divine beings of Yahweh’s host and earthly rulers. What this means is that the Hebrew Bible had a definite way of distinguishing the divine beings (the powers – plural – in heaven) from humans. It makes little sense to make Psalm 82 unclear if such a contrast between gods and humans were the goal. Why confuse people by using elohim if you wanted to refer to humans?

[5] Introductory notes in "The Insight Bible", an NIV Bible with study notes published by Zondervan

[6] Vargo, Andrew. Rebuttals to Islamic Awareness : Rahmanan (RHMNN) - An Ancient South Arabian Moon God?. Answering Islam. [2024-10-09] （英语）. The "Islamic Awareness" team attempts to convince us that Muhammad's ar-Rahman is really no different than the Christian and Jewish uses of similar epithets for God. As Sam Shamoun pointed out in his article on ar-Rahman, it is clear that the people of Mecca did not recognize ar-Rahman as the God of the Christians and the Jews. The Christian inscriptions presented by the "Islamic Awareness" clearly shows that the authors were describing the Triune God – not Muhammad's concept of Allah.

[7] Nattan, Stephen Van. Appendix 5: Is Allah the moon god as claimed by Robert Morey?. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-13] （英语）. As a side note here, Robert Morey is of the Reformed church background. It is a curious thing then why he chooses to use Bible versions other than the Bibles of the Reformers-- The King James Bible and Luther's Bible. I also note that he has a Crusader's Club. Why choose this imagery when the Roman Catholic Whore used the virtual same title for her mongrel mass of filthy soldiers who attacked the Islamic peoples of the Middle East long ago? Why? The word "crusader" is not a biblical word.

[8] Nattan, Stephen Van. Robert Morey-- Arab Basher-- Morey's "allah is the Moon god" Heresy. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-13] （英语）. Dr. Robert Morey of http://www.faithdefenders.com is known for his radical views of indorsing Christians to bomb the Muslim city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia (so much for Christianity being peaceful and loving), and of spinning the infamous Moon God Theory which was easily refuted here. Because of his extremist views against Islam, he has been embraced by many fanatical Evangelical Christian groups.

[9] Nattan, Stephen Van. Chapter Seventeen － Mohammed's Claims for Himself. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-14] （英语）. We are reminded at once of Mohammed's "virtue" as he consummated his battlefield "marriage" to a Jewish captive, Safiya, in a sand dune with the gore and filth of battle all over him. Virtuous actions no doubt, though it is today called rape-- virtuous, even though he broke his own Hadith sharia law to wait until after her next monthly!

[10] Nattan, Stephen Van. Appendix Ten: What do Islam and Mainline Christianity Have in Common?. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-14] （英语）. The standard of Islam is similar. Muslim men would never allow their wives or daughters to go out uncovered, and they make sure they are modest at all times. These same men, when out of town on business, will visit whores and sodomite pimps, and they will always visit restaurants that provide belly dancers. This goes back to Mohammed. He would not permit the women to go uncovered in public, but he married a nine year old girl and consummated the marriage at once. This would be seen today as wicked, but in the prophet, well, it is OK because he was so holy in other areas of his life. ... This is why Osama bin Laden is approved by nearly all Muslims. There is nothing in the teachings of Mohammed and the Koran which approves or disapproves of what Osama did. So, the best Muslim can rejoice at the death and suffering in the World Trade Center. Did not Mohammed exalt Jihad in the Hadith. The number of Hadith on Jihad is greater than any other subject in the Hadith.

[11] Fighting for the Cause of Allah (Jihaad) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 52.

[12] Blood Money (Ad-Diyat) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Translation of Sahih Bukhari, Book 83.

[13] 《穆斯林聖訓實錄》41:6981、41:6985，見The Book Pertaining to the Turmoil and Portents of the Last Hour (Kitab Al-Fitan wa Ashrat As-Sa`ah) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆），Translation of Sahih Muslim，Book 41。

[:2-14] The Life Account of Shaykh Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab and Ibn Sa‘ud. [2018-12-09]. （原始内容存档于2018-12-08）.

[Lacey_1983:_56-15] Lacey 1983: 56

[DeLong-Bas_2004:_24-16] DeLong-Bas 2004: 24

[DeLong-Bas_2004:_242-17] DeLong-Bas 2004: 24

[18] 'Hajar: 28

[DeLong-Bas_2004:_34-19] DeLong-Bas 2004: 34

[20] Vassiliev, Alexei. The History of Saudi Arabia. Saqi. 2013 [2018-12-15]. ISBN 9780863567797. （原始内容存档于2020-05-10）.

[:02-21] Khatab, Sayed. Understanding Islamic Fundamentalism: The Theological and Ideological Basis of Al-Qa'ida's Political Tactics. Oxford University Press. 2011: 73–74 [2018-12-06]. ISBN 9789774164996. （原始内容存档于2020-05-10）.

[22] Bowen 2008，第83頁

[EIU-23] Democracy index 2012 Democracy at a standstill (PDF). The Economist Intelligence Unit. 2012 [2015-09-26]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-03-20）.

[24] Six things women in Saudi Arabia cannot do （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） The Week 2017-09-27

[UNComdemn-25] BBC news: Saudi 'torture' condemned by UN. BBC. [2008-03-23]. （原始内容存档于2008-03-08）（英语）.

[voa20150202a2-26] 龚小夏. 小夏看美国:西方多元社会面临恐怖挑战. 美國之音. 2015-02-02 [2015-12-31]. （原始内容存档于2015-12-29）. 自1975年以来，沙特阿拉伯每年在国外花费大约二十至三十亿美元去建立宣扬瓦哈比派教义的清真寺与《古兰经》学校。

[ifeng_01-27] 俄罗斯政府并未真正解决车臣问题和平靠“维持”. 鳳凰網. 2013-07-01 [2016-10-18]. （原始内容存档于2020-06-08）（中文）.

[voa20150202-28] 龚小夏. 小夏看美国:西方多元社会面临恐怖挑战. 美國之音. 2015-02-02 [2015-12-31]. （原始内容存档于2015-12-29）. 瓦哈比教派力主圣战，用伊斯兰来征服世界。

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伊斯蘭教與基督教關係

观念