Irk

Irk, toplum tarafından genellikle farklı görülen biyolojik, fiziksel ve sosyal niteliklere göre insanların gruplandırılmasıdır.[1] Terim öncelikle ortak bir dil konuşanları ve sonrasında belirli milliyetten insanları anlatmak için kullanılmıştır. On yedinci yüzyıl itibarıyla bu terim fiziksel (fenotipik) özellikleri işaret etmek için kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Modern bilim ırk terimini sosyal bir inşa olarak görmektedir. Sosyal inşa bireyin toplum tarafından koyulmuş kurallara dayanan kimliğidir. Her ne kadar kısmen gruplar arasındaki fiziksel benzerliklere bağlı olsa da ırk terimi fiziksel ya da biyolojik bir anlam taşımamaktadır.[1][2]

Sosyal konseptler ve ırkların gruplandırılması zaman içerisinde çeşitlilik göstermiştir. Bu gruplandırmalardan biri olan halk sınıflandırması veya halk taksonomisi[3][4] bireylerin gözlenen özelliklerine göre başlıca tipler halinde sınıflandırılmasıdır. Bilim insanları biyolojik özcülüğü artık kullanmamakta[5] ve fiziksel ve davranışsal özelliklere dayanarak insanların toplu şekilde farklı gruplara ayrılması ile yapılan ırk tanımlamalarını genellikle desteklememektedir.[6][7][8][9][10]

Her ne kadar ırk teriminin özcü ve topolojik olarak kavramsallaştırılmasının savunulmaz olduğu konusunda bilimsel görüş birliği olsa da dünyanın her yanından bilim insanları ırkı farklı şekillerde kavramsallaştırmaktadır ki bu görüşlerin bazılarında özcü çıkarımlar da bulunmaktadır.[11] Kimi bilim insanları ırk kavramını davranıştaki gözlenebilir farkları veya özellikleri içeren bulanık kümede ayrımlar yapmak için kullanırken kimileri ırk fikrinin saf[6] veya basit[12] bir anlamda kullanıldığını öne sürmekte ve tüm yaşayan insanların aynı türe, Homo sapiens'e, ait olduğunu işaret ederek insanlar arasında ırkın herhangi bir taksonomik öneminin olmadığını savunmaktadır.[13][14]

Yirminci yüzyılın ikinci yarısından sonra bilimsel ırkçılığa ait teoriler ve ideolojilerin ırk kavramı ile ilişkilendirilmesi ırkın bilimsel olmayan bir sınıflandırma sistemi olarak görülmesine yol açtı. Hala genel bağlamlarda kullanılsa da ırk kelimesi yerine bağlama bağlı olarak nüfus, insanlar, etnik grup veya topluluk gibi daha belirsiz ve hafif anlama sahip kelimeler seçilir.[15][16]

İnsan popülasyonları arasındaki ortalama genetik Fst uzaklığı yaklaşık olarak 0.125'tir. Lewontin (1972), bunun küçük bir ırksal farkı temsil ettiğini savundu.[17] Öte yandan, Harpending (2002), böyle bir uzaklığın, rastgele eşleşen bir popülasyondaki yarı-kardeşler arasındaki akrabalıkla eşdeğer olduğunu ve belirli bir popülasyonun bir bireyinin, karma ırktan yarı-kardeşine göre aynı popülasyondaki bir yabancı bireye genetik olarak daha yakın olduğunu iddia etti.[18]

Kaynakça

  1. ^ a b Barnshaw, John (2008). "Race". Schaefer, Richard T. (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 1. SAGE Publications. ss. 1091-3. ISBN 978-1-45-226586-5. 
  2. ^ Smedley, Audrey; Takezawa, Yasuko I.; Wade, Peter. "Race: Human". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 25 Ekim 2019 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 22 Ağustos 2017. 
  3. ^ Montagu, Ashley (1962). "The Concept of Race". American Ethnography Quasimonthly. 2 Aralık 2010 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 26 Ocak 2009. 
  4. ^ Bamshad, Michael; Olson, Steve E (10 Kasım 2003). "Does Race Exist?" (PDF). Scientific American. 289 (6): 78-85. Bibcode:2003SciAm.289f..78B. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1203-78. PMID 14631734. 14 Haziran 2007 tarihinde kaynağından (PDF) arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 12 Haziran 2020. 
  5. ^ Sober, Elliott (2000). Philosophy of biology (2.2yer=Boulder, CO bas.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813391267. 
  6. ^ a b Lee et al. 2008: "We caution against making the naive leap to a genetic explanation for group differences in complex traits, especially for human behavioral traits such as IQ scores"
  7. ^ AAA 1998: "For example, 'Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic "racial" groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation within 'racial' groups than between them.'"
  8. ^ Keita, S O Y; Kittles, R A; Royal, C D M; Bonney, G E; Furbert-Harris, P; Dunston, G M; Rotimi, C N (2004). "Conceptualizing human variation". Nature Genetics. 36 (11s): S17-S20. doi:10.1038/ng1455. PMID 15507998. Modern human biological variation is not structured into phylogenetic subspecies ('races'), nor are the taxa of the standard anthropological 'racial' classifications breeding populations. The 'racial taxa' do not meet the phylogenetic criteria. 'Race' denotes socially constructed units as a function of the incorrect usage of the term. 
  9. ^ Harrison, Guy (2010). Race and Reality. Amherst: Prometheus Books. Race is a poor empirical description of the patterns of difference that we encounter within our species. The billions of humans alive today simply do not fit into neat and tidy biological boxes called races. Science has proven this conclusively. The concept of race (...) is not scientific and goes against what is known about our ever-changing and complex biological diversity. 
  10. ^ Roberts, Dorothy (2011). Fatal Invention. London, New York: The New Press. The genetic differences that exist among populations are characterized by gradual changes across geographic regions, not sharp, categorical distinctions. Groups of people across the globe have varying frequencies of polymorphic genes, which are genes with any of several differing nucleotide sequences. There is no such thing as a set of genes that belongs exclusively to one group and not to another. The clinal, gradually changing nature of geographic genetic difference is complicated further by the migration and mixing that human groups have engaged in since prehistory. Human beings do not fit the zoological definition of race. A mountain of evidence assembled by historians, anthropologists, and biologists proves that race is not and cannot be a natural division of human beings. 
  11. ^ Lieberman, L.; Kaszycka, K. A.; Martinez Fuentes, A. J.; Yablonsky, L.; Kirk, R. C.; Strkalj, G.; Wang, Q.; Sun, L. (Aralık 2004). "The race concept in six regions: variation without consensus". Coll Antropol. 28 (2): 907-21. PMID 15666627. 4 Mayıs 2020 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 12 Haziran 2020. 
  12. ^ Graves 2001[sayfa belirt]
  13. ^ Keita et al. 2004
  14. ^ AAPA 1996 "Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogeneous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past." p. 714
  15. ^ "Race2". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. 11 Temmuz 2012 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 5 Ekim 2012. 1. Each of the major division of humankind, having distinct physical characteristics [example elided]. 1.1. mass noun The fact or condition of belonging to a racial division or group; the qualities or characteristics associated with this. 1.2. A group of people sharing the same culture, history, language, etc.; an ethnic group [example elided].  Provides 8 definitions, from biological to literary; only the most pertinent have been quoted.
  16. ^ Keita, S O Y; Kittles, R A; Royal, C D M; Bonney, G E; Furbert-Harris, P; Dunston, G M; Rotimi, C N (2004). "Conceptualizing human variation". Nature Genetics. 36 (11s): S17-S20. doi:10.1038/ng1455. PMID 15507998. Many terms requiring definition for use describe demographic population groups better than the term 'race' because they invite examination of the criteria for classification. 
  17. ^ Lewontin, R. C. (4 Nis 1972). Dobzhansky, Theodosius; Hecht, Max K.; Steere, William C. (Ed.). Evolutionary Biology: Volume 6. Springer US. ss. 381-398. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-9063-3_14. 19 Ağustos 2020 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 4 Nisan 2024 – Springer Link vasıtasıyla. 
  18. ^ Harpending, Henry (2002). "Kinship and Population Subdivision". Population and Environment. 24 (2). ss. 141-147. 13 Haziran 2023 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 4 Nisan 2024 – JSTOR vasıtasıyla. 

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