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和製漢語
和製漢語
Chinese name
Simplified Chinese	和制汉语
Traditional Chinese	和製漢語
Literal meaning	Japanese-made Chinese words
Hanyu Pinyin
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin	Hézhì Hànyǔ
Bopomofo	ㄏㄜˊ ㄓˋ ㄏㄢˋ ㄩˇ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh	Hertzyh Hannyeu
Wade–Giles	He2-zhi4-han4-yu3
Yale Romanization	Héjì Hànyǔ
IPA	[xɤ̌ ʈʂî.xân ỳ]
Wu
Shanghainese; Romanization	[Hhutsr Hoenyy; [ɦv̩ʷ²²t͡sz̩⁴⁴ hø³³n̠ʲy⁴⁴]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 137: ̩) (help)
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization	[Wòhjai Hо̄nyúh] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 9: о) (help)
Jyutping	Wo4zai3 Hon1jyu5
IPA	[wɔ˩ tsɐj˧.hɔn˥ jy˩˧]
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ	Hê-chè Hàn-gú
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabet	Hòa chế Hán ngữ
Chữ Hán	和製漢語
Korean name
Hangul	화제한어
Hanja	和製漢語
Revised Romanization
Transcriptions
Revised Romanization	Hwajehaneo
McCune–Reischauer	Hwajehanŏ
Japanese name
Kanji	和製漢語
Hiragana	わせいかんご
Revised Hepburn
Transcriptions
Revised Hepburn	Wasei Kango
Kunrei-shiki	Wasei Kango

Wasei-kango (Japanese: 和製漢語, "Japanese-made Chinese words") are those words in the Japanese language composed of Chinese morphemes but invented in Japan rather than borrowed from China. Such terms are generally written using kanji and read according to the on'yomi pronunciations of the characters. While many words belong to the shared Sino-Japanese vocabulary, some kango do not exist in Chinese while others have a substantially different meaning from Chinese. Some kango have been borrowed back into Chinese.

Meiji era

During the Meiji Restoration, Japanese words were invented en masse to represent western concepts such as revolution (革命, kakumei) or democracy (民主, minshu). Towards the end of the 19th century, many of these terms were re-imported into Chinese. Some consider that because the form of the words entirely resembles that of native Chinese words in most cases, Chinese speakers often fail to recognize that they were actually coined in Japan.^[1] However, some scholars argue that many of those terms, which were considered as wasei-kango by some people, were in fact created by Chinese and Western scholars. During the 19th century, officials from Japan had been purchasing Sino-English dictionaries such as "A Dictionary of the Chinese Language (1822)", "An English and Chinese Vocabulary in Court Dialect (1844)" and "Vocabulary and Handbook of the Chinese Language (1872)" from China in order to absorb Western civilization.^[2]

History

Pre-Meiji period

Since antiquity, the Japanese have supplemented their native vocabulary, known as yamato kotoba, by borrowing many words from Chinese. After integrating the Chinese words into their vocabulary, they began creating their own kango.

One source of wasei-kango is the reinterpretation of yamato kotoba via on'yomi readings of the characters as opposed to the original kun'yomi. For example, the archaic word for Japan, 日の本 (ひのもと Hinomoto), has become the modern 日本 (にほん Nihon or にっぽん Nippon). Another example is the word for daikon, 大根, which changed from おおね ōne to だいこん daikon. Sometimes, an inversion of the character order is necessary, as in the construction of 立腹 (りっぷく) rippuku from 腹が立つ (はらがたつ) hara ga tatsu for "anger". Terms have also been coined for concepts in Japanese culture such as geisha (芸者), ninja (忍者), or kaishaku (介錯).

Meiji Restoration

As Western influence began to take hold in Japan during the 19th-century Meiji Restoration, Japanese scholars discovered that they needed new words to translate the books imported from Europe. As Natsume Sōseki once wrote in his diary,

law は nature の world に於る如く human world を govern している

^{[citation needed]}

or in English, "Law governs the human world as the natural world." Eventually, it became possible to write the above sentence as it would be in modern Japanese:

法律は自然の世界に於る如く人類世界を統治している。

Japanese officials and scholars also imported new terms coined by Chinese and Western scholars from Sino-English dictionaries from China. Many of these terms are still commonly being used by both countries nowadays.^[2]

Sometimes, existing words were repurposed to translate these new concepts. For example, 世界 was a Classical Chinese Buddhist term which became the modern word for "world", and kagaku (科学, science) was taken from "欽定千叟宴詩". Other words were completely new creations, such as tetsugaku (哲学, philosophy) and denwa (電話, telephone). The majority of wasei-kango were created during this period. Following the Meiji Restoration and the Japanese victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, many of these terms found their way into the modern Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese languages, where they remain today.

Examples


Characters (Japanese Kanji/Traditional Chinese, Simplified Chinese)	Mandarin Chinese transliterations (Pinyin, Bopomofo)	Japanese (Rōmaji, Hiragana)	Korean (Romaja, Hangeul)	Vietnamese	Meaning
一期一會, 一期一会	yīqīyīhuì, ㄧㄑㄧㄧㄏㄨㄟˋ, ㄧㄑㄧˊㄧㄏㄨㄟˋ	ichigo ichie, いちごいちえ			lit. one treasure one meeting fig. treasure every encounter, for it will never recur
一石二鳥, 一石二鸟	yīshíèrniǎo, ㄧㄕˊㄦˋㄋㄧㄠˇ	isseki nichō, いつせきにちょう			lit. one stone two birds fig. kill two birds with one stone
中將, 中将	zhōngjiàng, ㄓㄨㄥㄐㄧㄤˋ	chūjō, ちゅうしょう	jungjang, 중장	trung tướng	lieutenant general; vice admiral
革命	gémìng, ㄍㄜˊㄇㄧㄥˋ	kakumei, かくめい	hyeongmyeong, 혁명	cách mạng/mệnh	revolution
民主	mínzhǔ, ㄇㄧㄣˊㄓㄨˇ	minshu, みんしゅ	minju, 민주	dân chủ	democracy
共和國, 共和国	gònghéguó, ㄍㄨㄥˋㄏㄜˊㄍㄨㄛˊ	kyōwakoku, きょうわこく	gonghwaguk, 공화국	cộng hòa quốc	republic
主義, 主义	zhǔyì, ㄓㄨˇㄧˋ	shugi, しゅぎ	juui, 주의	chủ nghĩa	ideology; -ism
世界	shìjiè, ㄕˋㄐㄧㄝˋ	sekai, せかい	segye, 세계	thế giới	world
國際	guójì, ㄍㄨㄛˊㄐㄧˋ	kokusai, こくさい	gukje, 국제	quốc tế	international
出超	chūchāo, ㄔㄨ¯ㄔㄠ¯	shutchō, しゅっちょう	chulcho, 출초	xuất siêu	trade surplus
銀行, 银行	yínháng, ㄧㄣˊㄏㄤˊ	ginkō, ぎんこう	eunhaeng, 은행	ngân hàng	bank
電話, 电话	diànhuà, ㄉㄧㄢˋㄏㄨㄚˋ	denwa, でんわ	jeonhwa, 전화	điện thoại	phone
廣告, 广告	guǎnggào, ㄍㄨㄤˇㄍㄠˋ	kōkoku, こうこく	gwanggo, 광고	quảng cáo	advertisement
病院	bìngyuàn, ㄅㄧㄥˋㄩㄢˋ	byōin, びょういん	byeong'won, 병원	bệnh viện	hospital
哲學, 哲学	zhéxué, ㄓㄜˊㄒㄩㄝˊ	tetsugaku, てつがく	cheolhak, 철학	triết học	philosophy
物理	wùlǐ, ㄨˋㄌㄧˇ	butsuri, ぶつり	mulli, 물리	vật lí	physics
工業, 工业	gōngyè, ㄍㄨㄥ¯ㄧㄝˋ	kōgyō, こうぎょう	gong'eop, 공업	công nghiệp	industry

Notes

References

^ Chung, Karen Steffen (2001). "Chapter 7: Some Returned Loans: Japanese Loanwords in Taiwan Mandarin" (PDF). In McAuley, T.E. (ed.). Language Change in East Asia. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. pp. 161–179. ISBN 0700713778. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
^ ^a ^b 陳力衛《語詞的漂移：近代以來中日之間的知識互動與共有》,〈學苑〉, 2007-05-29

References

Robert Morrison "A Dictionary of the Chinese Language" (1822): 使徒, 審判, 法律, 醫學, 自然的, 新聞, 精神, 単位, 行為, 言語
Samuel Wells Williams "An English and Chinese Vocabulary in Court Dialect" (1844): 內閣, 選舉, 新聞紙, 文法, 領事
Walter Henry Medhurst "English and Chinese Dictionary" (1847-1848): 知識, 幹事, 物質, 偶然, 教養, 天主, 小說, 本質
Wilhelm Lobscheid "English and Chinese Dictionary, with Punti and Mandarin Pronunciation" (1866-1869): 蛋白質, 銀行, 幻想, 想像, 保險, 文學, 元帥, 原理, 右翼, 法則, 戀愛、讀者
Justus Doolittle "Vocabulary and Handbook of the Chinese Language" (1872): 電報, 電池, 光線, 分子, 地質論, 物理, 動力, 光學, 國會, 函數, 微分學