Tsarist autocracy

This article is part of a series on
Conservatism in Russia
Ideologies
Principles
History
Intellectuals
Literature
Politicians
Parties
Active

Defunct

Organisations
Media
Related topics
Part of the Politics series
Basic forms of government
List of forms · List of countries
Source of power
Democracy (rule by many)
Oligarchy (rule by few)
Autocracy (rule by one)
Anarchy (rule by none)
Power ideology
(socio-political ideologies)
(socio-economic ideologies)
  • Religious
  • Secular
(geo-cultural ideologies)
Power structure
Unitarism
Client state
Federalism
International relations
Related
icon Politics portal
Part of the Politics series
Monarchy
Heraldic royal crown
Central concepts
Types
Philosophy

Philosophers

Works

Politicians
History
Polity
Administration
Related ideologies
National variants
Related topics
icon Politics portal

Tsarist autocracy[a] (Russian: царское самодержавие, romanized: tsarskoye samoderzhaviye), also called Tsarism, was an autocracy, a form of absolute monarchy localised with the Grand Duchy of Moscow and its successor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire.[b] In it, the Tsar possessed in principle authority and wealth, with more power than constitutional monarchs counterbalanced by legislative authority, as well as a more religious authority than Western monarchs. The institution originated during the time of Ivan III (1462−1505) and was abolished after the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Alternative names

Imperial autocracy,[c] Russian autocracy,[d] Muscovite autocracy,[e] tsarist absolutism,[f] imperial absolutism,[g] Russian absolutism,[h] Muscovite absolutism,[i] Muscovite despotism,[j][k] Russian despotism,[l] tsarist despotism[m] or imperial despotism.[n]

History

Ivan III (reigned 1462–1505) built upon Byzantine traditions and laid foundations for the tsarist autocracy which with some variations would govern Russia for centuries.[1][2] Absolutism in Russia gradually developed during the 17th and 18th centuries, replacing the despotism of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

After the chaotic Time of Troubles (1598–1613), the first monarch of the Romanov dynasty, Michael of Russia (reigned 1613–1645), was elected to the throne by a Zemsky Sobor ("assembly of the land"). During Michael's reign, when the Romanov dynasty was still weak, such assemblies were summoned annually. The Romanov dynasty consolidated absolute power in Russia during the reign of Peter the Great (reigned 1682–1725), who reduced the power of the nobility and strengthened the central power of the tsar, establishing a bureaucratic civil service based on the Table of Ranks but theoretically open to all classes of the society, in place of the nobility-only mestnichestvo which Feodor III had abolished in 1682 at the request of the highest boyars.[3][4][5] Peter I also strengthened state control over the Russian Orthodox Church.[3]

Peter's reforms provoked a series of palace coups seeking to restore the power of the nobility.[6] To end them, Catherine the Great, whose reign (1762–1796) is often regarded as the high point of absolutism in Russia, in 1785 issued the Charter to the Gentry, legally affirming the rights and privileges they had acquired in preceding years, and the Charter of the Towns, establishing municipal self-government. This placated the powerful classes of society but left real power in the hands of the state bureaucracy.[6] Building on this, Alexander I (reigned 1801–1825) established the State council as an advisory legislative body. Alexander II (1855–1881) established a system of elected local self-government (Zemstvo) and an independent judicial system, but Russia did not have a national-level representative assembly (Duma) or a constitution until the 1905 Revolution.[7]

The system was abolished after the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Features

The tsar himself, the embodiment of sovereign authority, stood at the center of the tsarist autocracy, with full power over the state and its people.[8] The autocrat delegated power to persons and institutions acting on his orders, and within the limits of his laws, for the common good of all Russia.[8] The tsar was metaphorically a father and all of his subjects were his children; this metaphor even appeared in Orthodox primers,[9] and is remembered in the common Russian expression "царь-батюшка" tsar-batyushka ("tsar-dear father").

Furthermore, contrary to the movement for separation of church and state in West European monarchies, the Russian Empire combined monarchy with the supreme authority on religious issues (see Church reform of Peter I and caesaropapism for details).

Another key feature related to patrimonialism. In Russia, the tsar owned a much higher proportion of the state (lands, enterprises, etc.) than did Western monarchs.[10][11][12][13][14][15]

The tsarist autocracy had many supporters within Russia. Major Russian advocates and theorists of the autocracy included writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky,[2][16] Mikhail Katkov,[17] Konstantin Aksakov,[18] Nikolay Karamzin,[16] Konstantin Pobedonostsev[2][8] and Pyotr Semyonov. They all argued that a strong and prosperous Russia needed a strong tsar and that philosophies of republicanism and liberal democracy were alien to it.[2]

Influences

Some historians see the traditions of tsarist autocracy as partially responsible for laying the groundwork for the totalitarianism in the Soviet Union.[1][2][19][20] They see the traditions of autocracy and patrimonialism as dominating Russia's political culture for centuries; for example, Stephen White is described as "the most consistent" defender of the position that the uniqueness of Russian political heritage is inseparable from its ethnic identity. In White's opinion, autocracy is the defining factor in the history of Russian politics.[21] He wrote that Russian political culture is "rooted in the historical experience of centuries of absolutism".[22] Those views had been challenged by other historians, for example, Nicolai N. Petro and Martin Malia (as cited by Hoffmann).[19] Richard Pipes is another influential historian among non-specialists who holds the position about the distinctness of Russian history and political system, describing the absolutism of the Muscovite political system as "patrimonial", and saw the stability of the Soviet Union in the fact that Russians accepted the legitimacy of this patrimonial organization.[21]

Some historians have pointed to a racial element in the concept. For example, American Cold War analysts, including George Kennan, linked the Soviet government's autocratic rule to Tatar influences during its history, and biographies of Russian leaders often stressed their possible Asiatic ancestries. In the tradition of the racist ideology of the Nazis, they maintained that Asiatic influences rendered the Russians, along with the Chinese, untrustworthy.[23][24]

Criticism of the concept

Historians of different backgrounds have criticized the concept of tsarist autocracy in its various forms. Their complaints range from the different names of the model being too vague,[25] to its chronological implications (it is impossible to consider Russia in different centuries the same) as well as to its content (the question how Russian or "tsarist" autocracy differs from "regular" autocracy or from European absolutism for that matter).[25]

Regarding the substance of the autocracy model, its equation with despotism and its supposed origins in Mongol rule, as well as its supposed rise in medieval Muscovy, have been heavily debated.[26] For one, Marxist Soviet scholars were concerned with prerevolutionary absolutism and identified the boyar elites and the bureaucracy as its pillars. For example, Sergey M. Troitskii claimed that the Russian monarchs held sway of the nobility which was reduced to state service. According to Troitskii, absolutism in Russia was the same as everywhere else. This led to a difficult position within Marxism because absolutism revolves around institutions and laws, which were fundamentally less important than the socioeconomic base of society.[27] This raises the question of how absolutism could be the same when socioeconomic circumstances in Russia were not the same as elsewhere.

In order to reconcile the non-socioeconomic nature of absolutism with Marxist theory, Soviet scholar Alexander N. Chistozvonov proposed to group the Russian monarchy with the Prussian and Austrian ones, forming a distinct mix of Western European absolutism and "oriental despotism".[28] In the eyes of Chistozvonov, whatever absolutist or autocratic elements were indeed present in Russia, they were not unique and do not warrant Russia's exclusive categorization.

Similarly struggling with Marxist conceptions, Soviet historian Petr A. Zaionchkovskii and his student Larisa G. Zakharova focused on the importance of the political convictions of Russian officials and bureaucrats to explain nineteenth-century political decision-making. By showing that the state was not a unified and powerful whole (commanded by the economically dominant class), they likewise tackled common (Marxist) conceptions of Russian autocracy.[29] While like Troitskii, they studied the nobility and bureaucracy (in a later period), Zaionchkovskii and Zakharova painted a different picture of the tsar's position. Coinciding with Western scholars like Robert Crummey, they lay bare the interdependence of monarch and nobility in the practice of rule.[30]

Outside Russia and the Soviet Union, Hans-Joachim Torke among others tried to counter the notion of an all-powerful autocratic state by pointing at the mutual dependency of service elites and the state (coining the term "state-conditioned society").[31] Torke acknowledges that the tsars were not reined in by any form of constitution, but he emphasizes, for example, the limitations of Christian morality and court customs. The so-called "American school" of the 1980s and 1990s argued for the important role of elite networks and their power in court. Edward Keenan went even further in his well-known piece on Muscovite political culture, claiming that the tsar was merely a puppet in the hands of boyars who wielded the actual power behind the scenes.[32]

For others, like David Ransel and Paul Bushkovitch, it goes too far to portray relations between tsar and nobility like Keenan does, because it does not appreciate their complexity. Bushkovitch argues that the theoretic lack of limitations on the power of the tsar is irrelevant and instead claims that the "crucial question" is where the real power lay. In his view, this can only be shown by the political narrative of events.[33] Bushkovitch placed the balance of power between the tsar, the individual boyars, and the tsar's favorites at the center of political decision-making. In so doing, Bushkovitch found that on the one hand, the tsar's relative power fluctuated per monarch, and on the other hand, that the nobility was all but unified; the balance of power changed with each tsar as well as the rise of boyars and in the case of Peter I even shifted multiple times.

Charles J. Halperin cautioned against views that too easily claim tsar and state dominance in politics or society.[34] While acknowledging the institutional differences between Muscovy and Western European monarchies, Halperin nevertheless stresses that these differences should not be considered absolute. In his view, the practice of rule, a matter of human interactions, is more important than theory and abstractions.[34]

See also

Notes

a ^ As used in those publications.

b ^ The existing literature pairs the words Russian, tsarist, Muscovite and imperial with despotism, absolutism and autocracy in all possible combinations, rarely giving clear definitions. Tsarist can be indeed applicable to the entire period (see also historical usage of the term "tsar"), but Muscovite is applicable only to the period of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which was replaced by tsardom of Russia, a period for which the words imperial and Russian are applicable. Further, we can look at Muscovite despotism as a precursor for the tsarist absolutism, however, the very use of the word despotism has problems (see following note). Finally, care should be taken with the term autocracy: Today, the autocrat is usually seen as synonymous with despot, tyrant, and/or dictator, though each of these terms originally had a separate and distinct meaning. Overall, out of the available terms, "tsarist autocracy" is the one that seems most correct for the entire period discussed, but it is worth keeping in mind that there are no ideal types and that the Russian political system evolved through time.

c ^ As used in those publications.

d ^ As used in those publications.

e ^ As used in those publications.

f ^ As used in those publications.

g ^ As used in those publications.

h ^ As used in those publications.

i ^ As used in those publications.

j ^ As used in those publications.

k ^ The terms oriental despotism and its development, the Muscovite or Russian despotism, have been criticized as misleading, since Muscovy, and Russia, never had characteristics of pure despotism, such as the ruler being identified with a god.[2][35][36]

l ^ As used in those publications.

m ^ As used in those publications.

n ^ As used in those publications.

References

  1. ^ a b Peter Truscott, Russia First: Breaking with the West, I. B. Tauris, 1997, ISBN 1-86064-199-7, Google Print, p.17
  2. ^ a b c d e f Peter Viereck, Conservative Thinkers: From John Adams to Winston Churchill, Transaction Publishers, 2005, ISBN 1-4128-0526-0, Google Print, pp. 84–86
  3. ^ a b Nicolai N. Petro, The Rebirth of Russian Democracy: An Interpretation of Political Culture, Harvard University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-674-75001-2, Google Print, p.34-36
  4. ^ David R. Stone, A Military History of Russia: From Ivan the Terrible to the War in Chechnya, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-275-98502-4, Google Print, p.59
  5. ^ Paul Bushkovitch, Peter the Great: The Struggle for Power, 1671–1725, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-521-80585-6, Google Print, p. 80 & 118-119[permanent dead link‍]
  6. ^ a b Nicolai N. Petro, The Rebirth of Russian Democracy: An Interpretation of Political Culture, Harvard University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-674-75001-2, Google Print, p.36-39
  7. ^ Nicolai N. Petro, The Rebirth of Russian Democracy: An Interpretation of Political Culture, Harvard University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-674-75001-2, Google Print, p.48
  8. ^ a b c Stephen J. Lee Russia and the USSR, 1855–1991: Autocracy and Dictatorship, Routledge, 2006. ISBN 0-415-33577-9, Google Print, p.1-3
  9. ^ Robert D. Crews, For Prophet and Tsar: Islam and Empire in Russia and Central Asia, Harvard University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-674-02164-9, Google Print, p.77
  10. ^ Deborah Goodwin, Matthew Midlane, Negotiation in International Conflict: Understanding Persuasion, Taylor & Francis, 2002, ISBN 0-7146-8193-8, Google Print, p.158
  11. ^ Nicolas Spulber, Russia's Economic Transitions: From Late Tsarism to the New Millennium, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-81699-8, Google Print, p.27-28
  12. ^ Reinhard Bendix, Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait, the University of California Press, 1977, ISBN 0-520-03194-6, Google Print, p.356-358
  13. ^ Richard Pipes, Russian Conservatism and Its Critics: A Study in Political Culture, Yale University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-300-12269-1, Google Print, p.181
  14. ^ Catherine J. Danks, Russian Politics and Society: An Introduction, Pearson Education, 2001, ISBN 0-582-47300-4, Google Print, p.21
  15. ^ Stefan Hedlund, Russian Path Dependence: A People with a Troubled History, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0-415-35400-5, Google Print, p.161
  16. ^ a b James Patrick Scanlan, Dostoevsky the Thinker: A Philosophical Study, Cornell University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8014-3994-9, Google Print, p.171-172
  17. ^ Richard Pipes, Russian Conservatism and Its Critics: A Study in Political Culture, Yale University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-300-12269-1, Google Print, p.124
  18. ^ Nicolai N. Petro, The Rebirth of Russian Democracy: An Interpretation of Political Culture, Harvard University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-674-75001-2, Google Print, p.90
  19. ^ a b David Lloyd Hoffmann, Stalinism: The Essential Readings, Blackwell Publishing, 2003, ISBN 0-631-22891-8,.Google Print, p.67-68
  20. ^ Dennis J. Dunn, The Catholic Church and Russia: Popes, Patriarchs, Tsars, and Commissars, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, ISBN 0-7546-3610-0, Google Print, p.72
  21. ^ a b Nicolai N. Petro, p. 29
  22. ^ Nicolai N. Petro, The Rebirth of Russian Democracy: An Interpretation of Political Culture, Harvard University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-674-75001-2, Google Print, p.15
  23. ^ Michael Adas (2006). Dominance by design: technological imperatives and America's civilizing mission. Harvard University Press. pp. 230–231. ISBN 0-674-01867-2.
  24. ^ David C. Engerman (2003). Modernization from the other shore. Harvard University Press. p. 260. ISBN 0-674-01151-1.
  25. ^ a b Halperin 2002, p. 501.
  26. ^ D. Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influence on the Steppe Frontier, 1304-1589 (Cambridge 1998) 91-95; M. Poe, 'The Consequences of the Military Revolution in Muscovy: A Comparative Perspective', Comparative Studies in Society and History 38 4 (1996) 603-604; R.O. Crummey, 'Russian Absolutism and the Nobility', Journal of Modern History 49 3 (1977) 456-459.
  27. ^ A. Gerschenkron, 'Soviet Marxism and Absolutism', Slavic Review 30 4 (1971) 855.
  28. ^ Crummey, 'Russian Absolutism', 458-459.
  29. ^ P.A. Zaionchkovskii, Otmena krepostnogo prava v Rossii (Moscow 1968); P.A. Zaionchkovski, Pravitel'stvennyi apparat samoderzhavnoi Rossii v XIX v. (Moscow 1978); L.G. Zakharova, Aleksandr II i otmena krepostnogo prava v Rossii (Moscow 2011).
  30. ^ Crummey, 'Russian Absolutism', 466-467.
  31. ^ Crummey, ‘Russian Absolutism’, 466; R.O. Crummey, 'Hans-Joachim Torke, 1938-2000', Kritika 2 3 (2001) 702
  32. ^ P. Bushkovitch, Peter the Great: The Struggle for Power, 1671-1725 (Cambridge 2004) 4; E.L. Keenan, 'Muscovite Political Folkways', Russian Review 45 2 (1986) 115-181.
  33. ^ D.L. Ransel, The Politics of Catherinian Russia: The Panin Party (New Haven 1975); Bushkovitch, Peter the Great: The Struggle for Power, 29.
  34. ^ a b Halperin 2002, pp. 501–507.
  35. ^ Donald Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304–1589, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-89410-7, Google Print, p.85
  36. ^ Tartar Yoke Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine Professor Gerhard Rempel, Western New England College.

Further reading

Read other articles:

Katherine Emmons Force

Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Desember 2023. Katherine Emmons ForceFoto Katherine, ca. 1915.Lahir(1891-03-12)12 Maret 1891Brooklyn, New York, Amerika SerikatMeninggal8 September 1956(1956-09-08) (umur 65)Newport, Rhode Island, Amerika SerikatPekerjaanPengusahaSuami/istriLorillard Suyd...

 

Lentvaris

Peta lokasi Lambang 54°39′0″N 25°4′0″E / 54.65000°N 25.06667°E / 54.65000; 25.06667 Istana Tyszkiewicz di Lentvaris Lentvaris (dengarkanⓘ, bahasa Polandia: Landwarów), adalah sebuah kota Lithuania timur, 9 km di timur Trakai, pusat transportasi penting, karena banyak jalan raya dan rel KA yang melintas di sini. Danau Lentvaris terletak dekat kota. Sejarah Pada abad ke-19 keluarga Tyszkiewicz memiliki sebuah istana bergaya Neo-Gothik yang dibangu...

 

Обыкновенная рысь

Для термина «Рысь» см. также другие значения: Рысь (значения) и Рыси Обыкновенная рысь Научная классификация Домен:ЭукариотыЦарство:ЖивотныеПодцарство:ЭуметазоиБез ранга:Двусторонне-симметричныеБез ранга:ВторичноротыеТип:ХордовыеПодтип:ПозвоночныеИнфратип:Челюстн�...

الجيش الوطني الشعبي الجزائري

  هذه المقالة عن الجيش الوطني الشعبي الجزائري. لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع وزارة الدفاع الوطني (الجزائر). الجيش الوطني الشعبي الجزائري شعار الجيش الوطني الشعبي الجزائري علم الجيش الوطني الشعبي الجزائري الدولة  الجزائر التأسيس 1954 (منذ 70 سنة) شعار مكتوب نحن أسود***أسود الغابنحن ...

 

Law Ting Pong Secondary School

Secondary school in Tai Po, Hong Kong This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Law Ting Pong Secondary School – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Law Ting Pong Secondary SchoolTraditional Chinese羅定邦中學Simplified Chinese罗定邦...

 

Nordic student meeting

Nordic student meeting in Uppsala 1856. Uppsala students arrive in Oslo, 23 June 1852. Nordic student meetings (Swedish: Nordiska studentmöten) or Scandinavian student meetings (Swedish: Skandinaviska studentmöten) were a series of gatherings between students at the Scandinavian universities during the 19th century. Students from Uppsala University, Lund University, the University of Copenhagen and the University of Oslo took turns in inviting respectively visiting each other's universitie...

Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas

This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (May 2009) 1974 United States Supreme Court caseVillage of Belle Terre v. BoraasSupreme Court of the United StatesArgued February 19–20, 1974Decided April 1, 1974Full case nameVillage of Belle Terre, et al., v. Bruce Boraas, et al.Citations416 U.S. 1 (more)94 S. Ct. 1536; 39 L. Ed. 2d 797; 6 ERC 1417Case historyPriorAppeal from the United States Court of ...

 

Kantong Sigmaringen

Daerah kantong Sigmaringen adalah sisa-sisa pengasingan dari pemerintah Vichy yang bersimpati pada Nazi Prancis yang melarikan diri ke Jerman selama Pembebasan Prancis menjelang akhir Perang Dunia II untuk menghindari penangkapan oleh pasukan Sekutu yang maju . Ditempatkan di Kastil Sigmaringen yang diminta sebagai pusat pemerintahan di pengasingan, pemimpin Prancis Vichy Philippe Pétain dan sejumlah kolaborator lainnya menunggu akhir perang. Komisi Pemerintah Prancis untuk Pertahanan Kepent...

 

Agartala Government Medical College

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Agartala Government Medical College – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2012) (Learn how and...

Martinaire

American cargo airline For the Dutch airline, see Martinair. Martinaire IATA ICAO Callsign - MRA MARTEX Founded1978HubsDallas/Fort WorthSecondary hubsCapital Region International AirportFleet size29HeadquartersAddison AirportAddison, Texas, USAKey peopleDane Smith (Chief Pilot)Websitemartinaire.com Martinaire Aviation, L.L.C. is an American cargo airline based on the grounds of Addison Airport in Addison, Texas, USA, near Dallas.[1] It operates feeder flights for overnight package del...

 

Fernando Lancioni

Questa voce sull'argomento calciatori italiani è solo un abbozzo. Contribuisci a migliorarla secondo le convenzioni di Wikipedia. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Fernando Lancioni Nazionalità  Italia Altezza 164 cm Peso 68 kg Calcio Ruolo Allenatore e difensore Termine carriera 1942 Carriera Squadre di club1 1929-1932 Milano1 (0)1932-1937 Sampierdarenese116 (0)1937-1938 Melzo? (?)1938-1939 Cantù? (?)1939-1940 Gubbio? (?)1940-1942 A...

 

Mauro Formica

Argentine footballer Mauro Formica Formica with Blackburn Rovers in 2011Personal informationFull name Mauro Abel Formica[1]Date of birth (1988-04-04) 4 April 1988 (age 36)[2]Place of birth Rosario, ArgentinaHeight 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in)Position(s) Attacking midfielderYouth career Newell's Old BoysSenior career*Years Team Apps (Gls)2006–2011 Newell's Old Boys 76 (17)2011–2013 Blackburn Rovers 49 (5)2013 → Palermo (loan) 8 (1)2013–2017 Cruz Azul 55 (8)201...

Lombard League

1167–1250 Italian anti-Imperial alliance For the political party, see Lega Lombarda. Member cities of the first and second Lombard League. The Lombard League (Liga Lombarda in Lombard, Lega Lombarda in Italian) was a medieval alliance formed in 1167,[1] supported by the popes, to counter the attempts by the Hohenstaufen Holy Roman emperors to assert influence over the Kingdom of Italy as a part of the Holy Roman Empire. At its apex, it included most of the cities of Northern Italy, ...

 

Quand la chair succombe (film, 1927)

Cet article est une ébauche concernant un film américain. Vous pouvez partager vos connaissances en l’améliorant (comment ?) selon les conventions filmographiques. Pour les articles homonymes, voir Quand la chair succombe et The Way of All Flesh. Quand la chair succombe Affiche du film (1927). Données clés Titre original The Way of All Flesh Réalisation Victor Fleming Scénario Perley Poore SheehanLajos BiróJules Furthman Acteurs principaux Emil JanningsBelle BennettPhyllis Hav...

 

Dislocazione delle legioni romane

Dislocazione delle legioni romaneDimensione dell'esercito romanoDislocazione delle legioni romane allo scoppio della guerra civile (gennaio 49 a.C.).LocalizzazioneStatoRoma Antica Stato attualeEuropa, Medio oriente e Africa settentrionale Informazioni generaliTipofortezze legionarie lungo i vari tratti di limes. Costruzione44 a.C.-400 circa InizioBritannia/Hispania FineMesopotamia/Egitto Informazioni militariUtilizzatoreImpero romano Funzione strategicadislocazione basi legionarie lungo le fr...

List of land-grant universities

This article's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This is a list of land-grant colleges and universities in the United States of America and its associated territories.[1] Land-grant institutions are often categorized as 1862, 1890, and 1994 institutions, based on the date of the legislation that designated most of...

 

Spin glass

Disordered magnetic state Schematic representation of the random spin structure of a spin glass (top) and the ordered one of a ferromagnet (bottom) Glass (amorphous SiO2)Quartz (crystalline SiO2)The magnetic disorder of spin glass compared to a ferromagnet is analogous to the positional disorder of glass (left) compared to quartz (right). Condensed matter physics PhasesPhase transitionQCP States of matterSolidLiquidGasPlasmaBose–Einstein condensateBose gasFermionic condensateFermi gasFermi ...

 

List of monarchies

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article or section possibly contains synthesis of material which does not verifiably mention or relate to the main topic. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding cit...

nomor penerbangan

Artikel ini perlu dikembangkan dari artikel terkait di Wikipedia bahasa Inggris. (Juli 2023) klik [tampil] untuk melihat petunjuk sebelum menerjemahkan. Lihat versi terjemahan mesin dari artikel bahasa Inggris. Terjemahan mesin Google adalah titik awal yang berguna untuk terjemahan, tapi penerjemah harus merevisi kesalahan yang diperlukan dan meyakinkan bahwa hasil terjemahan tersebut akurat, bukan hanya salin-tempel teks hasil terjemahan mesin ke dalam Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia. Jangan...

 

玛蒂尔德·格罗

玛蒂尔德·格罗出生Mathilde Frederique Helene Marie Gros 1999年4月27日  （25歲）圣卡特琳 就讀學校里昂商学院 職業体育人物、自行車運動員、场地自行车运动员  玛蒂尔德·格罗 玛蒂尔德·格罗（法語：Mathilde Gros，1999年10月24日—），法国女子自行车运动员，2019年世界场地自行车锦标赛女子竞速赛铜牌得主、2022年世界场地自行车锦标赛女子竞速赛金牌得主。[1&#...