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A temporary capital or a provisional capital is a city or town chosen by a government as an interim base of operations due to some difficulty in retaining or establishing control of a different metropolitan area. The most common circumstances leading to this are either a civil war, where control of the capital is contested, or during an invasion, where the designated capital is taken or threatened.

By definition, a temporary capital is located somewhere on the country's territory, as opposed to a capital-in-exile located on the territory of a different country. However, a country's capital may move in and out of exile over the course of a conflict.

The following list is sorted by the most recent date the temporary capital's status existed.

Current

Due to the ongoing Sudanese civil war, Sudan has set up a temporary capital in Port Sudan as of 2023 while Khartoum is under attack.
Due to the ongoing Yemeni civil war, Yemen has declared Aden as its provisional capital while its de jure capital Sana'a is controlled by the rebel Houthis. The declaration was made by then-President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi in the wake of the 2014–15 Yemeni coup d'état.^[1]
Due to the Western Sahara conflict, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic has a declared temporary capital in Tifariti (previously Bir Lehlou), in contrast to its de jure capital of Laâyoune, which is controlled by Morocco. However, its de facto headquarters are in exile in Rabouni, Tindouf Province, Algeria.

Provincial capitals

Due to the Russo-Ukrainian War, the capital of Donetsk Oblast was de facto moved from Donetsk to Mariupol in June 2014, then to Kramatorsk in October 2014, where it currently is.

For reasons other than war

Brades acts as the de facto temporary capital of Montserrat since 1998, after the de jure capital of Montserrat at Plymouth in the south of the island was abandoned in 1997 after it was buried by the eruptions of the Soufriere Hills volcano in 1995. Interim government buildings have since been built at Brades, becoming the new temporary capital in 1998. The move is intended to be temporary, but it has remained the island's de facto capital ever since. A new official capital is now being constructed in the Little Bay area.^[2]

21st century

Lviv in western Ukraine was a de facto temporary capital of Ukraine during the Battle of Kyiv at the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, with several other governments relocating their embassies.^[3]^[4] The embassies were moved back to Kyiv after the battle concluded in a Ukrainian victory.
- Due to the Russo-Ukrainian War, the capital of Luhansk Oblast was de facto moved from Luhansk to Sievierodonetsk in 2014. As of the fall of Sievierodonetsk in June 2022, the government of Luhansk Oblast is operating remotely in Ukraine.^[5]
The Turkish cabinet used İzmir as a temporary capital for a short while after the coup attempt in 15 July 2016.^{[citation needed]}
During the 2011 Libyan Civil War, the National Transitional Council (NTC) declared its base of operations in Benghazi to be the temporary capital of the Libyan Republic, as the NTC had previously declared its capital to be Tripoli, controlled by Muammar Gaddafi's Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.^[6]
The Transitional Federal Government of Somalia met in various locations within its territory rather than Mogadishu while the latter was deemed too dangerous to meet in, such as Baidoa in 2007.
Between 1996 and 2001, the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan relocated the capital from Kabul to Taloqan followed by Fayzabad.

Cold War

Germany after 1945 considered Berlin to remain the German capital. But due to the onset of the Cold War Berlin itself was divided and 161 kilometers (100 miles) beyond the Inner German Border within the Soviet-controlled zone that would soon become the German Democratic Republic. As a result, Bonn was established as a temporary capital for the Federal Republic of Germany until the two countries reunited in 1990. The Federal Republic of Germany's government and the bulk of its offices has since moved to Berlin, but a large portion of its offices remain in Bonn. (The German Basic Law has only mentioned the capital since 2008.)
At the height of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the Republic of China, whose capital was Nanjing, evacuated its central government, military, and many loyal citizens—totalling at around 1.2 to 2 million individuals—to the city of Taipei, located on the island of Taiwan.
- The Constitution of the Republic of China does not mention a de jure capital, leaving the issue to other official texts, which were inconsistent initially. For example, an official text in 1967 declared Taipei to be the "wartime capital", one from 1969 and one from 1975 declared Taipei to be the "capital", and one from 1979 declared Nanjing to be the "national capital". From 1982 onward, official documents have consistently declared Taipei to be the capital. Textbooks published by Taiwan's Ministry of Education stopped describing Nanjing as the capital in 2002.^[7]^{[circular reference]}
During the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, the Provisional Government of Bangladesh declared Mujibnagar as the temporary capital, even though the seat of the government in exile remained in Calcutta for most of the war.
During the First Indochina War (1946–1954) the government moved from Hanoi to Việt Bắc.
During the Korean War, the South Korean government temporarily moved its capital to Pusan (Busan) before the Korean People's Army advance which conquered and occupied Seoul. South Korea reestablished Seoul as the permanent capital of South Korea after the Korean War Armistice.
- During the UN offensive into North Korea, North Korea temporarily moved its capital from Pyongyang to Sinuiju, followed by Kanggye. Between 1948 and 1972, North Korea also claimed in its Constitution that Seoul was its de jure capital, and that Pyongyang is a temporary capital.^[8]

World War II

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the capital of the Republic of China at Nanjing was captured by the Empire of Japan, forcing the Republic of China to relocate to Chongqing.
Following the Fall of France, Free France initially established a capital-in-exile in London. As it recaptured territory, the de facto capital was moved to Brazzaville, followed by Algiers, and finally back to Paris.
- The constitutional capital of Vichy France remained Paris, with Vichy being described as a provisional capital.^[9] After the Liberation of France by the Allies, the regime went into exile in Sigmaringen.
During World War II due to evacuation actions following Nazi Germany's invasion and the Battle of Moscow the Soviet Union had different de facto capitals:
- Kuybyshev (now Samara) — planned temporary capital in case of occupation of Moscow and de facto temporary administrative and diplomatic capital
- Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) — de facto temporary industrial capital
- Kazan — de facto temporary scientific capital
- Tyumen — de facto temporary spiritual capital due to the presence of the remains of Vladimir Lenin
The Parliament of Finland moved from Helsinki to Kauhajoki during the Winter War.

Interwar period

During the Spanish Civil War, the Nationalists initially had a temporary capital at Burgos; once the Nationalists started to besiege Madrid, the Republicans maintained temporary capitals first at Valencia then at Barcelona. The capital returned to Valencia when Barcelona fell to the Catalonia Offensive.
Lithuania in Kaunas rather than Vilnius during the interwar period when Poland controlled the latter city (see Temporary capital of Lithuania).
The Pan-Russian "White" regime of Alexander Kolchak in Omsk during the Russian Civil War.
Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended fighting in World War I, Berlin as the capital was considered too dangerous for the National Assembly to use as a meeting place, because of its street rioting after the German Revolution. Therefore, the calm and centrally located Weimar was chosen as the temporary capital (see Weimar Republic).

World War I

During the Finnish Civil War in 1918, Vaasa served as the temporary capital of White Finland when the Red Guards controlled the capital de jure, Helsinki. Vaasa continued to serve as the capital until the Battle of Helsinki.
During the Serbian Campaign in World War I, the government of the Kingdom of Serbia temporarily moved its seat from Belgrade to Niš (1914–1915) and Corfu (1916–1918).
During World War I, the government of Romania moved to Iaşi after the fall of Bucharest to the Central powers.^[10]