Mass media in Ba'athist Syria

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The mass media in Syria consisted primarily of television, radio, Internet, film and print. The national language of Ba'athist Syria was Arabic but some publications and broadcasts were also disseminated in English and French.[1] While television was the most popular medium in Ba'athist Syria, the Internet became a widely utilized vehicle to disseminate content by 2013. In addition to its control of domestic media, the Ba'athist state also sought to control what Syrians saw by restricting coverage from outside sources.[2] Publications and broadcasts were monitored by members of the government.[1] All mass media outlets were under the supervision of the Ministry of Information. Third article of the 2013 Information Ministry guidelines stipulated that the purpose of all media outlets was "to enlighten public opinion" in line with the ideological doctrines "of the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party and the policy of the state".[3]

Following Ba'ath party's capture of power in 1963, the state immediately banned all news outlets except which advanced party propaganda. Syrians have had no exposure to free media or independent press since then, with there being no space for independent journalism, newspapers, publications, journalists or websites un-affiliated with party organizations. The situation worsened further after 1970, with the Ba'athist dictatorship imposing additional censorship policies that furthered its totalitarian control of the society.[4] State propaganda machine was primarily used to monopolise information access and indoctrinate the Syrian population in Ba'athist ideology.[5]

Ba'athist Syria was one of the most dangerous places in the world for journalists and was ranked 2nd worst in the World Press Freedom Index in 2024.[6][7] There were 28 journalists killed in combat in 2012.[8] Between 2011 and 2020, more than 700 civilian journalists have been killed in Syria and an estimated 78% of these killings were perpetarted by Ba'athist forces. More than 400 journalists were arrested or kidnapped in the course of the Syrian civil war. More than a third of independent journalists reporting on the war were forced to flee after Assad regime's capture of territories in Southern and Eastern Syria during 2016-2018.[9][10] During the early years of the Syrian revolution, there was a mass flight of local journalists due to persecution, threats, harassment, torture, executions and kidnappings from Ba'athist and pro-Assad militias. Ba'athist Syria had numerous laws such as "1965 law of protection against the revolution", "2011 media law", "2012 terrorism law", "2021 cybercrime law" which enabled the state to formally indict journalists and give a legal cover to media censorship.[11]

Media

Public media journalists in Ba'athist Syria practiced self-censorship.[8] Public media consisted of television, print, film, radio and internet and social media.

Print

According to Human Rights Watch, The Syrian Arab Establishment for Distribution of Printed Products, which was affiliated with the Ministry of Information, vetted all newspapers prior to distribution. The only two private daily newspapers covering political topics that have succeeded in staying open are owned by businessmen closely tied to the Ba'athist regime: Baladna and Al-Watan.[12] Al-Watan, a private daily formerly published by businessman Rami Makhlouf, Bashar al-Assad's cousin, was launched in 2006. United Group, a major advertising group owned by Majd Suleiman, son of a former senior intelligence officer (Bahjat Suleiman), owns and operated the private daily Baladna.[13]

Other Ba'athist and semi-official pro-Assadist private prints were permitted to be published in Ba'athist Syria such as dailies: Al-Thawra, Tishreen, Al-Ba'ath and Al-Iqtissadiya.[14]

Television

Main article: Television in Syria

There is one main broadcaster for both television and radio called the General Organization of Radio and Television of Syria (ORTAS). It was founded in 1960 and is based in Damascus. The channel has programs in Arabic, English and French.[1] TV is the most popular media in Syria.[8]

Satellite channels

Terrestrial channels

  • Channel 1 (Terrestrial, with Arabic focus), shut down in 2012.
  • Channel 2 (Terrestrial, with sport, family and health focus including regional variants), shut down in 2012.

Newspapers

Main article: List of newspapers in Syria

Film

Main article: Cinema of Syria

The Syrian film industry is state-run by the Ministry of Culture, which controls production through the National Organization for Cinema. The industry is largely propaganda based, focusing on Syria's successes in agriculture, health, transportation and infrastructure.[15]

Radio

See also: List of radio stations in Syria

First radio service began in 1941 in Syria.[16] There are over 4 million radios in Syria. They tend to broadcast music, ads and stories relating to culture.[1]

  • Syrian Arab Republic Radio
  • Alaan FM : Al Aan FM Launched in Syria in October 2012 broadcasting live from the UAE. Al Aan FM is available in the following cities and frequencies:
  • FARAH FM 97.3
  • Al-Bukamal 96.6 MHz
  • Aleppo 96.6 MHz
  • Al Qunaitra 98.2 MHz
  • Atimah Camps 99.7 MHz
  • Azaz & Afrin 96.6 MHz
  • Al Bab & Manbij 104.4 MHz
  • Damascus 96.9 MHz
  • Daraa 96.9 and 99.4 MHz
  • Hama, Homs 97.6 MHz
  • Idlib 96.6 MHz
  • Kobani 96.7 MHz
  • Latakia 96.6 MHz
  • Qamishli & Amuda 97.6 MHz
  • Suwayda 96.9 and 99.4 MHz
  • Shaddadi (Ash Shaddadi) 97.6 MHz
  • FARAH FM: www.farah.fm
  • FARAH FM 97.3 Radio FARAH FM Syria
  • Al-Madina FM: Syria's first private radio station

Online

See also: Telecommunications in Syria

Providing hosting services is a violation of United States sanctions.[17] Ba'athist Syrian government websites, news agencies and online news services based in or targeted at Syria, several of which launched during the Syrian civil war, include:[17]

  • Syrian Arab News Agency (SANA)
  • Al-Masdar News, a pro-Assadist newsoutlet. Shut down in 2021.[18][19]
  • Al-Watan, an online edition of Damascus-based Al-Watan newspaper, the 33rd most visited website for 2010 in the MENA region.[20]
  • SUNA news agency, an online news platform focused on Syria.[21]
  • Click News Syria, an online news service and a special media blog focused on Syria.[22]
  • Snack Syrian, an online news service focused on Syria.[23]
  • Q Street Journal, an online news service, online radio and a special media blog focused on Syria. Broadcasting from Dubai, UAE.[24]
  • ARA News, an online news service focussed on the consequences of war in Syria and Iraq, ceased operation in 2017.[25]
  • Syria-News, an Arabic language online press agency intended to report news about Syria.
  • Syria NewsDesk, a Beirut-based Arabic news agency, focussed on the ordeal of the Syrian population, supported by the Dutch foundation "Free Press Unlimited".[26][27]

Pro-opposition media

The public does have access to Western radio stations and satellite TV, and Qatar-based Al Jazeera has become very popular in Syria.[28]

In August 2012, a media centre utilized by foreign reporters in Azaz was targeted by the Syrian Air Force in an airstrike on a civilian area during Ramadan.[29]

Television

Main article: Television in Syria

There are also satellite stations which broadcast outside Syria. Two of the primary satellite networks, Eutelsat and Nilesat, have recently expressed frustrations over the Syrian government preventing satellite TV transmissions broadcast from international outlets.[8]

Satellite channels

Press

  • Enab Baladi, based in Istanbul, Turkey. Announced closure on 23 November 2023.[30]
  • Al-Ahd (The Vow): published by the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood
  • Qasioun News Agency: news agency licensed in Turkey, based in Gaziantep.
  • Shaam News Network, which is an activist news organization. It is privately financed. Each 16-page edition includes coverage of culture, translation from foreign news sources and cartoons.[34]

Radio

Main article: List of radio stations in Syria
Pro-Turkish

Internet and social media

Main article: Internet in Syria

With the breakdown of many traditional media outlets during the civil war, much of the current events are reported by individuals on Facebook and Twitter. However, the reliability of such reports can in many cases not be independently verified by credible news agencies. While many websites have appeared and publish a pro-opposition alternative to pro-government media, the lack of robust journalistic standards has often benefited the government since correctly denying news reports gives them more credibility.[35]

Prohibitive measures against media

State of Emergency law

The constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic guaranteed the right to a free press and freedom of expression, but Syria was under a highly restrictive state of emergency law since the Ba'ath Party came to power in 1964 until 2011. Anyone wishing to establish an independent paper or periodical must apply for a license from the Ministry of Information.[28] In 2011 the state of emergency was lifted.[41] This seems to have had no effect what-so-ever on the way the government conducted itself regarding the media, with Syria's ranking actually worsening the following year with journalistic organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists,[42] and Reporters Without Borders[43] both ranking Syria as one of the top four most repressive countries in the world.

In April 2009, Syrian Kurdish journalist Faruq Haji Mustafa was arrested by the Ba'athist secret police and has never been heard from again.[44]

Internet censorship

Main article: Internet censorship in Syria

In 2012, there were over 5 million Internet users in Syria. Reporters Without Borders listed Ba'athist Syria as an “internet enemy” due to high levels of censorship. The Internet was controlled by the Syrian Computer Society (SCS) and the Syrian Telecommunications Establishment (STE).[45] The Assad regime monitored activity through the hacking of emails and social networking accounts and phishing. Simultaneously, the government released pro-Assad propaganda and engaged in disinformation campaigns to support its cause.[46] Ba'athist Syria's penal law required Internet cafes to record all comments in the online chatrooms.[47] There was a two-day Internet blackout in 2012, which was orchestrated by the Assad regime.[8] Ba'athist authorities constantly blocked journalists and bloggers from attending and reporting on events by arresting and torturing them. This was not limited to Syrian journalists as several foreign journalists, such as the members of the Associated Press and Reuters, were also arrested and expelled from the country over their reporting.[46]

Press freedom

Reporters Without Borders ranked Ba'athist Syria 179th out of 180 countries in the world on its 2024 Press Freedom Index.[6] On the Press Freedom Barometer for 2022, the organization reports that 1 journalist has been killed, while 27 journalists and 2 media workers have been imprisoned.[48]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d European Neighborhood Journalism Network (n.d.). "Syria-media profile". European Neighborhood Journalism Network. Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
  2. ^ Nick Sturdee (10 February 2013). "BBC documentary examines Syria's state TV channel al Ikhbariya". TheGuardian.com. The Guardian. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
  3. ^ Sadiki, Larbi; Fares, Obaida (2014). "15: Pro-Regime versus Oppositional Media: During the Revolution, 2011–2013". Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization. Routledge. pp. 188, 189. ISBN 978-0-415-52391-2.
  4. ^ "On World Press Freedom Day: The Annual Report on the Most Notable Violations Against Media Workers in Syria". OCHR: Reliefweb. 3 May 2023. Archived from the original on 8 May 2023.
  5. ^ "Syria". Reporters Without Borders. 2023. Archived from the original on 8 May 2023.
  6. ^ a b "Syria". Reporters Without Borders. 2024. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024.
  7. ^ "Syria ranks second to last in RSF's press freedom index". Enab Baladi. 3 May 2024. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024.
  8. ^ a b c d e "Country profile: Syria". BBC News. 30 January 2013.
  9. ^ "Toll of ten years of civil war on journalists in Syria". Reporters without Borders. 12 March 2021. Archived from the original on 21 June 2022.
  10. ^ "707 Citizen Journalists Killed Since March 2011 to Date, 78% by Syrian Regime Forces". 3 May 2020. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. The report notes that 707 citizen journalists have been killed since March 2011 to date, 78% of them by Syrian Regime forces.
  11. ^ "Syria". Reporters Without Borders. 2023. Archived from the original on 8 May 2023. The regime treats the media as a tool for disseminating Baathist ideology and excludes any form of pluralism, driving many journalists into self-imposed exile...During the initial anti-government protests, the government banned international media outlets and freelancers from entering the country...with the risks of arrest, abduction, torture or murder, Syrian journalists are often forced to flee the country to escape mistreatment or death.
  12. ^ Houry, Nadim (2010-07-16). "A Wasted Decade: Human Rights in Syria during Bashar al-Asad's First Ten Years in Power". Human Rights Watch.
  13. ^ Arab Media Systems. Claudia Kozman, Carola Richter, Open Book Publishers. Cambridge, UK. 2021. ISBN 978-1-80064-064-1. OCLC 1241253592.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  14. ^ "707 Citizen Journalists Killed Since March 2011 to Date, 78% by Syrian Regime Forces" (PDF). SNHR. 3 May 2020: 1–19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2022. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  15. ^ Rasha Salti (2006). "Critical Nationals: The Paradoxes of Syrian Cinema" (PDF). Kosmorama. Danish Film Institute (Copenhagen). Retrieved 15 February 2013.
  16. ^ Yushi Chiba (2010). "Media History of Modern Egypt: A Critical Review". Kyoto Working Papers on Area Studies: G-COE Series. 84: 6. hdl:2433/155745.
  17. ^ a b New York Times (November 29, 2012). "Official Syrian Web sites hosted in U.S." The New York Times. New York Times. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  18. ^ O'Connor, Tom (17 March 2017). "Syria at War: As U.S. Bombs Rebels, Russia Strikes ISIS and Israel Targets Assad". Newsweek. Retrieved 28 April 2017.
  19. ^ McKernan, Bethan (2 February 2017). "Syrian army creates unit just for women after so many sign up to fight Isis". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2022-05-12.
  20. ^ "Forbes Releases Top 50 MENA Online Newspapers; Lebanon Fails to Make Top 10". Jad Aoun. 28 October 2010. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
  21. ^ SUNA About us
  22. ^ عن كليك
  23. ^ https://snacksyrian.com/ [bare URL]
  24. ^ Q Street Journal Main Page
  25. ^ "Interview Adib Abdulmajid". Tilburg University. Archived from the original on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2017-06-26.
  26. ^ "Independent news agency launched in Syria". Free Press Unlimited. 22 May 2013. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017.
  27. ^ "Developing Professional Journalism in Syria". Free Press Unlimited. 2015. Archived from the original on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2017-10-10.
  28. ^ a b Syria country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (April 2005). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  29. ^ "Syrian warplanes hammer rebel border town". Al Jazeera. 15 August 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
  30. ^ a b c d "Syria media guide". BBC News. 28 August 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  31. ^ "Syria's media war". Columbia Journalism Review.
  32. ^ "بيان إغلاق أورينتعلاء فرحاتععلاء فرحات". Orient News. 21 November 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2023.
  33. ^ Kilani, Feras (2014-11-28). "Qatar's Al-Araby Al-Jadeed: Will new media venture silence suspicions?". BBC News. Retrieved 2022-06-26.
  34. ^ MacFarquhar, Neil (April 2013). "Syrian newspapers emerge to fill out war reporting". The New York Times.
  35. ^ Macfarquhar, Neil (2013-04-01). "Syrian Newspapers Emerge to Fill Out War Reporting". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-01-23.
  36. ^ "Rojava Information Center". Rojava Information Center. Retrieved 2020-03-29.
  37. ^ "Têkilî (contact)". ANF News (in Kurdish).
  38. ^ "Contact ANHA". Archived from the original on 23 February 2018. Retrieved 2 January 2017. Phone +96352463446 (Hasaka Syria number)
  39. ^ Issa, Philip; Mroue, Bassem (13 April 2017). "Misdirected US strike killed 18 allied fighters in Syria". AP News. Beirut.
  40. ^ "About us - Kurd Net - Ekurd.net Daily News". Kurd Net - Ekurd.net Daily News.
  41. ^ Khaled Yacoub Oweis (21 April 2011). "Syria's Assad ends state of emergency". Reuters. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  42. ^ "10 Most Censored Countries". Committee to Protect Journalists. 2 May 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  43. ^ "Press Freedom Index 2011-2012". Reporters Without Borders. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  44. ^ "Syrian journalist held incommunicado, another on trial". Committee to Protect Journalists. 22 April 2009. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021.
  45. ^ "Syria". Reporters Without Borders. 2012. Archived from the original on 2017-12-06. Retrieved 2013-04-25.
  46. ^ a b "Syria". Reporters Without Borders. 1 September 2011. Archived from the original on 25 September 2010. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
  47. ^ "There is no media in Syria at all". Irish Times. 11 April 2012.
  48. ^ "Syria | RSF". rsf.org. Retrieved 2022-05-06.

Further reading

Joseph Daher Syria, the uprising and the media scene, OpenDemocracy 26 October 2017

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