Islam in Kerala

Islam in Kerala
A rebuilt structure of the old Cheraman Juma Mosque, Kodungallur
Total population
c. 9 million (26.56%) in 2011[1][2]
Regions with significant populations
Kerala, Lakshadweep,[3] Tulu Nadu, Kodagu, Nilgiris,[4] States of Persian Gulf[5]
Religions
Islam
Languages
Malayalam, Arabi Malayalam[6][7]
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Practices
History
Culture and society
Related topics
Part of a series on
Sunni Islam
Beliefs
Five Pillars
Rightly-Guided Caliphs
Sunni schools of law

Others

Sunni schools of theology

In terms of Ihsan:

Contemporary movements
Holy sites
Lists
Islam portal
Part of a series on
Islam in India
Jamia Masjid is the largest Mosque of India
History
Architecture
Masjid Zeenath Baksh is the 3rd oldest mosque in India
Major figures
Famous families and ethnicities
Schools of law
Contemporary movements
Mosques in India
Universities
Influential bodies

Islam arrived in Kerala, the Malayalam-speaking region in the south-western tip of India, through Middle Eastern merchants.[8][9] The Indian coast has an ancient relation with West Asia and the Middle East, even during the pre-Islamic period.

Kerala Muslims or Malayali Muslims from north Kerala are generally referred to as Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.[10] According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled Muslim community in South Asia.[8][9] As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from Kerala (former Malabar District) of different origins.[11][10] Native Muslims of Kerala were known as Mouros da Terra, or Mouros Malabares in medieval period. Settled foreign Muslims of Kerala were known as Mouros da Arabia/Mouros de Meca.[12]

Muslims in Kerala share a common language (Malayalam) with the rest of the non-Muslim population and have a culture commonly regarded as the Malayali culture.[13] Islam is the second largest practised religion in Kerala (26.56%) next to Hinduism.[14] The calculated Muslim population (Indian Census, 2011) in Kerala state is 8,873,472.[1][8] Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow Sunni Islam of Shāfiʿī School of thought, while a large minority follow modern movements (such as Salafism) that developed within Sunni Islam.[15][10]

History

Silk Road trade routes. The spice trade was mainly by water (blue).
Names, routes and locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE)

Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".[16][17]: 79  Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs, Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period.[18] Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices.[18] The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries.[18] They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East.[18] The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.[18]

In the past, there were many Muslim traders in the ports of Malabar.[19] There had been considerable trade relations between Middle East and Malabar Coast even before the time of Muhammad (c. 570 – 632 AD).[20][21] Muslim tombstones with ancient dates, short inscriptions in medieval mosques, and rare Arab coin collections are the major sources of early Muslim presence on the Malabar Coast.[9] Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger Indian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from the Middle East. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.[22][23] Notable has been the occurrence of Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin, the Hindu King that moved to Arabia to meet the Islamic prophet Muhammad and converted to Islam.[24][25][26] Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.[10][27] According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad (c. 570–632).[28][29][30][31] According to Qissat Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in Indian Subcontinent.[32] It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town.[33] According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep islands, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of Andrott.[34] A few Umayyad (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from Kothamangalam in the eastern part of Ernakulam district.[35]

The earliest major epigraphic evidence of Muslim merchants in Kerala is the Quilon Syrian copper plates (9th century AD)
Shafiʽi school (shaded in dark blue) is the most-prominent school among the Muslims of Kerala, coastal Karnataka, and Sri Lanka unlike from rest of South Asia

The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates of 9th century CE, granted by the ruler of Kollam.[36] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the Malabar Coast. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 AD), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 AD), Abulfeda (1273–1331 AD), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.[37] Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia.[30][38] Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) appears to be the first writer to call Malabar Coast as Malabar.[39] Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.[40] The Arab writers had called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills.[3] According to William Logan, the word Malabar comes from a combination of the Dravidian word Mala (hill) and the Persian/Arabic word Barr (country/continent).[3] The Kodungallur Mosque, has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style.[40] The Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the Madayi Mosque in Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.[41][35][40]

The monopoly of overseas spice trade from Malabar Coast was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports.[42] The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the Hindu royal courts.[43][42] Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.[8] Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.[9][11] The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an Old Malayalam inscription written in a mixture of Vatteluttu and Grantha scripts which dates back to 10th century CE.[44] It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a Hindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the Muslims of Kerala.[44] A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and Arabic, at Muchundi Mosque in Kozhikode mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.[45]

The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battutah (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.[2] By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of Calicut (Kozhikode) as the major port city in Kerala.[11] Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut, such as that of the port commissioner, were held by Muslims.[46] The port commissioner, the Shah Bandar, represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Battutah mentions Shah Bandars in Calicut as well as Quilon (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar).[2][46] The Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom, based at Kannur, ruled the Lakshadweep Islands.[39] Arabs had the monopoly of trade in Malabar Coast and Indian Ocean until the Portuguese Age of Discovery.[39] The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean.[11][9]

The arrival of the Portuguese explorers in the late 15th century checked the then well-established and wealthy Muslim community's progress.[47] Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon.[48][49] The Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Malabar coast.[50] It was first printed and published in Lisbon. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of Al-Azhar University, Cairo.[51][52][53] Tuhfatul Mujahideen also describes the history of Mappila Muslim community of Kerala as well as the general condition of Malabar Coast in the 16th century CE.[51] With the end of Portuguese era, Arabs lost their monopoly of trade in Malabar Coast.[39] As the Portuguese tried to establish monopoly in spice trade, bitter naval battles with the zamorin ruler of Calicut became a common sight.[54][55] The Portuguese naval forces attacked and looted the Muslim dominated port towns in the Kerala.[56][57] Ships containing trading goods were drowned, often along with the crew. This activities, in the long run, resulted in the Muslims losing control of the spice trade they had dominated for more than five hundred years. Historians note that in the post-Portuguese period, once-rich Muslim traders turned inland (southern interior Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce.[47]

By the mid-18th century the majority of the Muslims of Kerala were landless labourers, poor fishermen and petty traders, and the community was in "a psychological retreat".[47] The community tried to reverse the trend during the Mysore invasion of Malabar District (late 18th century).[58] The victory of the English East India Company and princely Hindu confederacy in 1792 over the Kingdom of Mysore placed the Muslims once again in economical and cultural subjection.[47][59] The subsequent partisan rule of British authorities throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries brought the landless Muslim peasants of Malabar District into a condition of destitution, and this led to a series of uprisings (against the Hindu landlords and British administration). The series of violence eventually exploded as the Mappila Uprising (1921–22).[47][60][13][61] The Muslim material strength - along with modern education, theological reform, and active participation in democratic process - recovered slowly after the 1921-22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in state and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Muslim literacy rate was only 5% in 1931.[9]

A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the Persian Gulf countries in the following years (c. 1970s). This widespread participation in the "Gulf Rush" produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. A great influx of funds from the earnings of the employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment, and educational backwardness began to change.[8] The Muslims in Kerala are now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change, and positive involvement in the modern world. Malayali Muslim women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles.[9] University of Calicut, with the former Malabar District being its major catchment area, was established in 1968.[62] Calicut International Airport, currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988.[63][64] An Indian Institute of Management (IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996.[65]

Demography

The last Indian Census was conducted in 2011. According to the 2011 Census of India, the district-wise distribution of the Muslim population is as shown below:[66]

District wise map of Kerala District Total Pop Muslims % of Pop % of Muslims
Kerala 33,406,061 8,873,472 26.56% 100.0%
Kasargod 1,307,375 486,913 37.24% 5.49%
Kannur 2,523,003 742,483 29.43% 8.37%
Wayanad 817,420 234,185 28.65% 2.64%
Kozhikode 3,086,293 1,211,131 39.24% 13.65%
Malappuram 4,112,920 2,888,849 70.24% 32.56%
Palakkad 2,809,934 812,936 28.93% 9.16%
Thrissur 3,121,200 532,839 17.07% 6.00%
Ernakulam 3,282,388 514,397 15.67% 5.80%
Idukki 1,108,974 82,206 7.41% 0.93%
Kottayam 1,974,551 126,499 6.41% 1.43%
Alappuzha 2,127,789 224,545 10.55% 2.53%
Pathanamthitta 1,197,412 55,074 4.60% 0.62%
Kollam 2,635,375 508,500 19.30% 5.73%
Thiruvananthapuram 3,301,427 452,915 13.72% 5.10%
Distribution of Muslims in Kerala – District-wise.

Theological orientations/denominations

Most of the Muslims of Kerala follow Sunni Islam of Shāfiʿī school of religious law (known in Kerala as the traditionalist 'Sunnis') while a large minority follow modern movements that developed within Sunni Islam.[8][9] The latter section consists of majority Salafists (the Mujahids) and the minority Islamists. Both the traditional Sunnis and Mujahids again have been divided to sub-identities.[67][8][9]

Communities

  • Mappilas: The largest community among the Muslims of Kerala.[10] As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from north Kerala (former Malabar District) of different ethnic origins. In south Kerala Malayali Muslims are not called Mappilas.[10]

A Mappila is either,

  1. A descendant of any native convert[70]) to Islam[10][71] (or)
  2. A descendant of a marriage alliance between a Middle Eastern individual and a native low caste woman[10][72]

The term Mappila is still in use in Malayalam to mean "bridegroom" or "son-in-law".[10]

  • Pusalans: Mostly converts from the Mukkuvan caste. Formerly a low status group among the Muslims of Kerala.[73] The other Mappilas used call them "Kadappurattukar", while themselves were known as "Angadikkar". The Kadappurattukar were divided into two endogamous groups on the basis of their occupation, "Valakkar" and "Bepukar". The Bepukar were considered superior to Valakkar.[10]

In addition to the two endogamous groups there were other service castes like "Kabaru Kilakkunnavar", "Alakkukar", and "Ossans" in Pusalan settlements. Ossan occupied the lowest position in the old hierarchy.[10]

  • Ossans: the Ossans were the traditional barbers among the Muslims of Kerala. Formed the lowest rank in the old hierarchy, and were an indispensable part of the village community of Muslims of Kerala.[10]
  • Thangals (the Sayyids): Claiming descent from the family of Muhammed. People who had migrated from Middle East. Elders of a number of widely respected Thangal families often served as the focal point of the Muslim community in old Malabar District.[10]
  • Rowthers: The Muslim community originated in Tamilakam. Mainly they settled in Trivandrum, Alapuzha, Kochi, kottayam, kollam, Idukki, Pathanamthitta, Pandalam, Palakkad regions in kerala. Rowther sect is a prominent and prosperous muslim community in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[74]
  • Vattakkolis (the Bhatkalis) or Navayats: ancient community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, originally settled at Bhatkal, Uttara Kannada. Speaks Navayati language. Once distributed in the towns of northern Kerala as a mercantile community. They are mainly distributed in the Northern parts of Malabar bordering Karnataka.[10]
  • Nahas: The origin of the name Naha is supposed to be a transformation of "nakhuda" which means captain of ship. Community concentrated mainly in Parappanangadi, south of Kozhikode who trace their origins to Persian ship owners.[10][75]
  • Marakkars: once multilingual maritime trading community settled in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, the Palk Strait and Sri Lanka. The most famous of the Marakkar were "Kunjali Marakkars", or the naval captains of the Zamorin of Calicut. The Muslims of pure Middle Eastern descent held themselves superior to Marakkars.[10]
  • Keyis: community of wealthy merchants, mainly settled in Kannur, Thalassery and Parappanangadi with Iranian origin.[10][76]
  • Koyas: Muslim community, in the city of Kozhikode forming a significant majority in Kozhikode and its adjoining areas. May be of Omani origin. It is said that the name is a corruption of “Khawaja”. Held administrative positions in the Kozhikode court of the zamorins.[10][77]
  • Kurikkals: a community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, settled around Manjeri in Malappuram District.The family was first settled in Mavvancheri in North Malabar and moved to Manjeri in the beginning of the 16th century. Many of the members of the family served as instructor in the use of fire-arms in the employ of various chiefs of Malabar.[10]
  • Nainars: a community of Tamil origin. Settled only in Cochin, Mattanchery, Fort Kochi and Kodungallur. It is believed that the Nainars first settled in Kerala in the 15th century, entering into contract for certain works with the chiefs of Cochin.[10]
  • Dakhnis or Pathans: "Dakhni" speaking community. Migrated as cavalry men under various chiefs, especially in South Travancore. Some of them came South India along with the invasion of the Coromandel by the Khaljis. Many of the Dakhnis had also come as traders and businessmen.[10]
  • Kutchi Memons: They are a Kutchi speaking Gujarati ethnic group from the Kutch region. They are descended from the Lohana community among Gujarati Hindus.They were mainly traders who had migrated to Central Kerala with the other Gujarati traders.[78][79]
  • Beary/Byary: Muslims: community Stretching along the Tulunadu region. In Kerala they inhabits the coastal area of Kasargod district.They speak their own tongue which is called Beary language. They are originally mercantile community, hece the name 'beary', from the Sanskrit word 'Vyapari'(merchant).
  • Bohras (Daudi Bohras): Western (Mustaalis) Ismaili Shiah community. Settled in a few major town in Kerala like Kozhikode, Kannur, Kochi and Alappuzha. Bohras migrated from Gujarat to Kerala. They form the major part of the Shia community in Kerala.[10][80]

Culture

Literature

See also: Arabi Malayalam and Arabi Malayalam script

Mappila Songs (or Mappila Poems) is a famous folklore tradition emerged in c. 16th century. The ballads are compiled in complex blend of Dravidian (Malayalam/Tamil) and Arabic, Persian/Urdu in a modified Arabic script.[81] Mappila songs have a distinct cultural identity, as they sound a mix of the ethos and culture of Dravidian South India as well as West Asia. They deal with themes such as religion, satire, romance, heroism, and politics. Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1875–91) is generally considered as the poet laureate of Mappila Songs.[9]

As the modern Malayali Muslim literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field.[9]

Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Kerala Muslim authors of the modern age.[9] Muslim periodical literature and newspaper dailies – all in Malayalam – are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "Chandrika", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Muslim community.[9]

Kerala Muslim folk arts

  • Oppana was a popular form of social entertainment. It was generally performed by a group of women, as a part of wedding ceremonies a day before the wedding day. The bride, dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments, is the chief "spectator"; she sits on a pitham, around which the singing and dancing take place. While the women sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride in steps.
  • Kolkkali was a dance form popular among the Muslims. It was performed by a group of dozen young men with two sticks, similar to the Dandiya dance of Gujarat in Western India.
  • Duff Muttu[82] (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims, using the traditional duff, or daf, also called tappitta. Performers dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff.
  • Arabana muttu was an art form named after the aravana, a hand-held, one-sided flat tambourine or drumlike musical instrument. It is made of wood and animal skin, similar to the duff but a little thinner and bigger.
  • Muttum Viliyum was a traditional orchestral musical performance. It is basically the confluence of three musical instruments—kuzhal, chenda and cheriya chenda. Muttum Viliyum is also known by the name "Cheenimuttu".
  • Vattappattu was an art form once performed in the Malabar region on the eve of the wedding. It was traditionally performed by a group of men from the groom’s side with the putiyappila (the groom) sitting in the middle.

Mappila Cuisine

See also: Thalassery cuisine
Pathiri, a pancake made of rice flour, is one of the common breakfast dishes in Malabar
Kallummakkaya nirachathu or arikkadukka (mussels stuffed with rice)
Thalassery biryani with raita
Halwas are popular in towns like Kannur, Thalassery, Kozhikode, and Ponnani

The Mappila cuisine is a blend of traditional Kerala, Persian, Yemenese and Arab food culture.[83] This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes.[83] Kallummakkaya (mussels) curry, irachi puttu (irachi meaning meat), parottas (soft flatbread),[83] Pathiri (a type of rice pancake)[83] and ghee rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—black pepper, cardamom and clove are used profusely.

The Malabar version of biryani, popularly known as kuzhi mandi in Malayalam is another popular item, which has an influence from Yemen. Various varieties of biriyanis like Thalassery biriyani, Kannur biriyani,[84] Kozhikode biriyani[85] and Ponnani biriyani[86] are prepared by the Mappila community.[83]

The snacks include unnakkaya (deep-fried, boiled ripe banana paste covering a mixture of cashew, raisins and sugar),[87] pazham nirachathu (ripe banana filled with coconut grating, molasses or sugar),[87] muttamala made of eggs,[83] chatti pathiri, a dessert made of flour, like a baked, layered chapati with rich filling, arikkadukka,[88] and more.[83]

Religious education

This section is an excerpt from Religious education in Kerala § Islam.[edit]

According to K. Mohammed Basheer, Kerala has one of the oldest madrasa (Malayalam: othupalli / Palli Dar) education systems in India which has been reformed in modern times to include non-religious and religious subjects.[89] Muslim communities, specifically Mappilas, form literate communities amongst Muslims in India. Historically, madrasas used to impart primary education about the mosque and the imams in it. Madrasas were non-residential, whilst residential facilities supported by mosques and the Muslim village community were called Palli Dar.[89] During the British colonisation of India, madrasas were upgraded to centres of primary education. Post-independence, madrasas hold religious education classes before or after regular schools.[89] The All Kerala Islamic Education Board were the first organization to conduct centralized examinations; subsequently, different schools of Islamic beliefs came forward to form their own Islamic education boards to train teachers and conduct centralized examinations: the Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidyabhyasa Board (SKIMVB), the Dakshiana Kerala Islam Matha Vidyabhyasa Board (DKIMVB), the Samastha Kerala Sunni Vidyabhyasa Board (SKSVB) and the Samastha Kerala Islamic Education Board (SKIEB). They are all grounded in Ahl as-Sunnah, whereas the Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen Vidyabhyasa Board (KNM) and The Council for Islamic Education and Research (CIER) are rooted in Ahl-i Hadith. The Majlis al Ta'alim al Islami Kerala (Majlis) represent Jamaat-e-Islami.[89]

Although the Kerala government does not have its own centralizing Madrasa board, Kerala madrasas affiliate themselves to various madrasa boards backed by various religious institutions, based on different ideologies. Among them, the Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidyabhyasa Board (SKIMVB) is the largest, with 80 percent of madrasa stating they are connected to Kerala.[89]

Since the 20th century, Arabic language classes have been implemented in Kerala for advanced religious education.[89]

Islamic universities operate in Kerala, including Markazu saqafathi ssunniya and Darul Huda Islamic University.[89]

See also

Bibliography

  • P. Shabna & K. Kalpana (2022) Re-making the self: Discourses of ideal Islamic womanhood in Kerala, Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 28:1, 24-43, doi:10.1080/12259276.2021.2010907

References

  1. ^ a b T. Nandakumar, "54.72 % of population in Kerala are Hindus" The Hindu August 26, 2015 [1]
  2. ^ a b c Miller, Roland E. (27 April 2015). Mappila Muslim Culture. State University of New York Press. p. xi. ISBN 978-1-4384-5601-0.
  3. ^ a b c William Logan (1887). Malabar Manual (Volume-I). Madras Government Press. p. 1.
  4. ^ Upadhyaya, U. Padmanabha. Coastal Karnataka: Studies in Folkloristic and Linguistic Traditions of Dakshina Kannada Region of the Western Coast of India. Udupi: Rashtrakavi Govind Pai Samshodhana Kendra, 1996.P- ix . ISBN 81-86668-06-3 . First All India Conference of Dravidian Linguistics, Thiruvananthapuram, 1973
  5. ^ Gulf Dream: For Indians The Golden Beaches Still gleam, Malayala Manorama Yearbook 1990;
  6. ^ Kottaparamban, Musadhique (1 October 2019). "Sea, community and language: a study on the origin and development of Arabi- Malayalam language of mappila muslims of Malabar". Muallim Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities: 406–416. doi:10.33306/mjssh/31. ISSN 2590-3691.
  7. ^ Kuzhiyan, Muneer Aram. "Poetics of Piety Devoting and Self Fashioning in the Mappila Literary Culture of South India". The English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad. hdl:10603/213506. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Miller, E. Roland. "Mappila Muslim Culture" State University of New York Press, Albany (2015); p. xi.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Miller, R. E. "Mappila" in The Encyclopedia of Islam Volume VI. Leiden E. J. Brill 1988 p. 458-66 [2]
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Kunhali, V. "Muslim Communities in Kerala to 1798" PhD Dissertation Aligarh Muslim University (1986) [3]
  11. ^ a b c d Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018.
  12. ^ Subrahmanyam, Sanjay."The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650" Cambridge University Press, (2002)
  13. ^ a b Pg 461, Roland Miller, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol VI, Brill 1988
  14. ^ Panikkar, K. N., Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant Uprisings in Malabar 1836–1921
  15. ^ Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987 pp. 458–56.
  16. ^ Pradeep Kumar, Kaavya (28 January 2014). "Of Kerala, Egypt, and the Spice link". The Hindu. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
  17. ^ Chattopadhyay, Srikumar; Franke, Richard W. (2006). Striving for Sustainability: Environmental Stress and Democratic Initiatives in Kerala. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978-81-8069-294-9.
  18. ^ a b c d e A Sreedhara Menon (1 January 2007). A Survey Of Kerala History. DC Books. pp. 57–58. ISBN 978-81-264-1578-6. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
  19. ^ Muhammed, Hedayuthabdulla (January 2009). kabir:The Apposaitle of Hindu Muslim Unity. Motilal Banarasidess. p. 47. ISBN 9788120833739.
  20. ^ Fuller, C. J. (March 1976). "Kerala Christians and the Caste System". Man. New Series. 11 (1). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 53–70. doi:10.2307/2800388. JSTOR 2800388.
  21. ^ P. P., Razak Abdul "Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of muslims of Malabar" Unpublished PhD thesis (2013) Department of History, University of Calicut [4]
  22. ^ Sethi, Atul (24 June 2007). "Trade, not invasion brought Islam to India". Times of India. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
  23. ^ Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.
  24. ^ Varghese, Theresa (2006). Stark World Kerala. Stark World Pub. ISBN 9788190250511.
  25. ^ Kumar, Satish (27 February 2012). India's National Security: Annual Review 2009. Routledge. ISBN 9781136704918.
  26. ^ Minu Ittyipe; Solomon to Cheraman; Outlook Indian Magazine; 2012
  27. ^ Chitra Divakaruni (16 February 2011). The Palace of Illusions. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-330-47865-6. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
  28. ^ Jonathan Goldstein (1999). The Jews of China. M. E. Sharpe. p. 123. ISBN 9780765601049.
  29. ^ Edward Simpson; Kai Kresse (2008). Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean. Columbia University Press. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-231-70024-5. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
  30. ^ a b Uri M. Kupferschmidt (1987). The Supreme Muslim Council: Islam Under the British Mandate for Palestine. Brill. pp. 458–459. ISBN 978-90-04-07929-8. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
  31. ^ Husain Raṇṭattāṇi (2007). Mappila Muslims: A Study on Society and Anti Colonial Struggles. Other Books. pp. 179–. ISBN 978-81-903887-8-8. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
  32. ^ Prange, Sebastian R. Monsoon Islam: Trade and Faith on the Medieval Malabar Coast. Cambridge University Press, 2018. 98.
  33. ^ Pg 58, Cultural heritage of Kerala: an introduction, A. Sreedhara Menon, East-West Publications, 1978
  34. ^ "History". lakshadweep.nic.in. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
  35. ^ a b Miller, Roland E. (1988). "Mappila". The Encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. VI. E. J. Brill. pp. 458–66.
  36. ^ Cereti, C. G. (2009). "The Pahlavi Signatures on the Quilon Copper Plates". In Sundermann, W.; Hintze, A.; de Blois, F. (eds.). Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 9783447059374.
  37. ^ Razak, Abdul (2013). Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar.
  38. ^ A. Rā Kulakarṇī (1996). Mediaeval Deccan History: Commemoration Volume in Honour of Purshottam Mahadeo Joshi. Popular Prakashan. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-81-7154-579-7. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
  39. ^ a b c d A Survey of Kerala History, A. Sreedhara Menon, DC Books, Kottayam (2007)
  40. ^ a b c Muhammad, K. M. (1999). Arab Relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. pp. 226–234.
  41. ^ Charles Alexander Innes (1908). Madras District Gazetteers Malabar (Volume-I). Madras Government Press. pp. 423–424.
  42. ^ a b Mehrdad Shokoohy (29 July 2003). Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa). Psychology Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-415-30207-4. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  43. ^ Menon, A. Sreedhara (1982). The Legacy of Kerala (Reprinted ed.). Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala. ISBN 978-8-12643-798-6. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
  44. ^ a b Aiyer, K. V. Subrahmanya (ed.), South Indian Inscriptions. VIII, no. 162, Madras: Govt of India, Central Publication Branch, Calcutta, 1932. p. 69.
  45. ^ M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) ISBN 978-81-8267-114-0
  46. ^ a b K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.
  47. ^ a b c d e Nossiter, Thomas Johnson (January 1982). Communism in Kerala: A Study in Political Adaptation. ISBN 9780520046672. Retrieved 2012-11-15.
  48. ^ Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge University Press, 1997, 288
  49. ^ Knox, Robert (1681). An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon. London: Reprint. Asian Educational Services. pp. 19–47.
  50. ^ AG Noorani "Islam in Kerala". Archived from the original on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
  51. ^ a b A. Sreedhara Menon. Kerala History and its Makers. D C Books (2011)
  52. ^ A G Noorani. Islam in Kerala. Books [5]
  53. ^ Roland E. Miller. Mappila Muslim Culture SUNY Press, 2015
  54. ^ Sanjay Subrahmanyam (29 October 1998). The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama. Cambridge University Press. pp. 293–294. ISBN 978-0-521-64629-1. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  55. ^ Henry Morse Stephens (1897). "Chapter 1". Albuquerque. Rulers of India series. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-1524-3.
  56. ^ Mehrdad Shokoohy (29 July 2003). Muslim Architecture of South India: The Sultanate of Ma'bar and the Traditions of the Maritime Settlers on the Malabar and Coromandel Coasts (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Goa). Psychology Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-415-30207-4. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  57. ^ The Edinburgh review: or critical journal – Sydney Smith, Lord Francis Jeffrey Jeffrey, Macvey Napier, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, William Empson, Harold Cox, Henry Reeve, Arthur Ralph Douglas Elliot (Hon.). 1922. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
  58. ^ Robert Elgood (15 November 1995). Firearms of the Islamic World: in the Tared Rajab Museum, Kuwait. I.B. Tauris. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-85043-963-9. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
  59. ^ Prema A. Kurien (7 August 2002). Kaleidoscopic Ethnicity: International Migration and the Reconstruction of Community Identities in India. Rutgers University Press. pp. 51–. ISBN 978-0-8135-3089-5. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
  60. ^ Kerala (India) (1962). Kerala District Gazetteers: Kozhikode (supplement). Superintendent of Government Presses.
  61. ^ Sreedhara Menon, A. (2008). Cultural heritage of Kerala – A Sreedhara Menon – Google Books. ISBN 9788126419036. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
  62. ^ "Official website of Calicut University – Home". www.universityofcalicut.info. Archived from the original on 2018-01-11. Retrieved 2018-10-11.
  63. ^ "Kozhikode Calicut International Airport (CCJ)". www.kozhikodeairport.com. Retrieved 2018-10-11.
  64. ^ "Silver jubilee does not bring cheer to Karipur airport users – Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 2018-10-11.
  65. ^ "The Institute". Archived from the original on 8 May 2017. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
  66. ^ "Population By Religious Community – 2011 Census of India". Census of India. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved 2020-10-19.
  67. ^ Shajahan Madampat, "Malappuram Isn't Mini Kashmir" Outlook 21 August 2017 [6]
  68. ^ a b c d e Islamism and Social Reform in Kerala, South India Modern Asian Studies
  69. ^ "Malayalam HomePage". www.alislam.org. Retrieved 2021-01-28.
  70. ^ "MAPPILA". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_com_0673. Retrieved 2021-03-22.
  71. ^ E., Miller, Roland (2016). Mappila muslim culture. State Univ Of New York Pr. ISBN 978-1-4384-5600-3. OCLC 928782482.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  72. ^ "MAPPILA". Encyclopédie de l’Islam. doi:10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_com_0673. Retrieved 2021-07-17.
  73. ^ Schneider, David Murray; Gough, Kathleen (1974). Matrilineal Kinship. University of California Press. p. 415. ISBN 978-0-520-02529-5.
  74. ^ Pottamkulam, George Abraham (2021-06-11). Kerala A Journey in Time Part II: Kingdom Of Cochin & Thekamkoor Rajyam; People Places and Potpourri. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-63873-514-4.
  75. ^ Chakravarti, Ranabir (2020-06-09), "Nakhuda Nuruddin Firuz at Somanātha: AD 1264", Trade and Traders in Early Indian Society, Routledge, pp. 220–242, doi:10.4324/9781003084129-11, ISBN 978-1-003-08412-9, S2CID 225771373, retrieved 2021-03-22
  76. ^ Abraham, Santhosh (2017-10-04). "The Keyi Mappila Muslim Merchants of Tellicherry and the Making of Coastal Cosmopolitanism on the Malabar Coast". Asian Review of World Histories. 5 (2): 145–162. doi:10.1163/22879811-12340009. ISSN 2287-965X.
  77. ^ Ravindranath, D.; Injeti, M.S.; Busi, B.R. (1984). "Anthropometric Variation among Koyas". Human Heredity. 34 (2): 131–132. doi:10.1159/000153449. ISSN 1423-0062. PMID 6745953.
  78. ^ LLC., General Books (2011). Social Groups of Gujarat : Parsi, Kutchi Gurjar Kashtriya, Ahirs, Mughal, Dhangar, Meghwal, Charan, Nagar Brahmins, Mers, Sıddi, Lohar, Chhipa, Vaghela, Sulaymani, Gauda Brahmins, Gujarati Muslims, Kumhar, Memon People, LOhana, Hujaratı People, Rabari, Khateek, Samma, Jadeja. General Books LLC. ISBN 978-0-7103-0849-8. OCLC 949589339.
  79. ^ Mukadam, Anjoom Amir; Mawani, Sharmina (2007-11-22). "Diaspora Revisited: Second-Generation Nizari Ismaili Muslims of Gujarati Ancestry". Global Indian Diasporas: 195–210. doi:10.1017/9789048501069.008. ISBN 9789048501069.
  80. ^ Qutbuddin, Tahera (2011), "The Daʾudi Bohra Tayyibis: Ideology, Literature, Learning and Social Practice", A Modern History of the Ismailis, I.B.Tauris, pp. 331–354, doi:10.5040/9780755610259.ch-013, ISBN 978-1-84511-717-7, retrieved 2021-03-22
  81. ^ "Preserve identity of Mappila songs". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 7 May 2006. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2009.
  82. ^ "Madikeri, Coorg, "Gaddige Mohiyadeen Ratib" Islamic religious "dikr" is held once in a year". YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-19. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
  83. ^ a b c d e f g Sabhnani, Dhara Vora (June 14, 2019). "Straight from the Malabar Coast". The Hindu. Retrieved January 26, 2021.
  84. ^ "Thalassery Chicken Biriyani". The Take It Easy Chef. 2017-06-23. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
  85. ^ Shamsul (2016-05-07). "Calicut Biryani Recipe I Kozhikodan Biriyani Recipe". CookAwesome. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
  86. ^ "Chicken and rosewater biryani recipe". BBC Food. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
  87. ^ a b Kurian, Shijo (July 2, 2014). "Flavours unlimited from the Malabar coast". The Hindu. Retrieved January 26, 2021.
  88. ^ "Arikkadukka – Spicy Stuffed Mussels". Faces Places and Plates. 2020-06-30. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
  89. ^ a b c d e f g Basheer, K. Mohammed (2016). Quality enhancement in Madrasa education : an exploratory study. Newcastle upon Tyne. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-4438-5685-0. OCLC 966288166.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Further reading