John Mitchell President of UMWA
George Baer President of Reading Railroad/ Speaker for coal operators J.P. Morgan Owner of Reading Railroad Samuel W. Pennypacker Governor of Pennsylvania
The Coal strike of 1902 (also known as the anthracite coal strike)[1][2] was a strike by the United Mine Workers of America in the anthracite coalfields of eastern Pennsylvania. Miners struck for higher wages, shorter workdays, and the recognition of their union. The strike threatened to shut down the winter fuel supply to major American cities. At that time, residences were typically heated with anthracite or "hard" coal, which produces higher heat value and less smoke than "soft" or bituminous coal.
The strike never resumed, as the miners received a 10 percent wage increase and reduced workdays from ten to nine hours; the owners got a higher price for coal and did not recognize the trade union as a bargaining agent. It was the first labor dispute in which the U.S. federal government and President Theodore Roosevelt intervened as a neutral arbitrator.[citation needed]
The United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) had won a sweeping victory in the 1897 strike by the soft-coal (bituminous coal) miners in the Midwest, winning significant wage increases. It grew from 10,000 to 115,000 members. A number of small strikes took place in the anthracite district from 1899 to 1901, by which the labor union gained experience and unionized more workers. The 1899 strike in Nanticoke, Pennsylvania, demonstrated that the unions could win a strike directed against a subsidiary of one of the large railroads.[3]
It hoped to make similar gains in 1900, but found the operators, who had established an oligopoly through concentration of ownership after drastic fluctuations in the market for anthracite, to be far more determined opponents than it had anticipated. The owners refused to meet or to arbitrate with the union. The union struck on September 17, 1900, with results that surprised even the union, as miners of all different nationalities and ethnicities walked out in support of the union.
Republican Party Senator Mark Hanna from Ohio, himself an owner of bituminous coal mines (not involved in the strike), sought to resolve the strike as it occurred less than two months before the presidential election. He worked through the National Civic Federation which brought labor and capital representatives together. Relying on J. P. Morgan to convey his message to the industry that a strike would hurt the reelection of Republican William McKinley, Hanna convinced the owners to concede a wage increase and grievance procedure to the strikers. The industry refused, on the other hand, to formally recognize the UMWA as the representative of the workers. The union declared victory and dropped its demand for union recognition.[4]
The issues that led to the strike of 1900 were just as pressing in 1902: the union wanted recognition and a degree of control over the industry. The industry, still smarting from its concessions in 1900, opposed any federal role. The 150,000 miners wanted their weekly pay envelope. Tens of millions of city dwellers needed coal to heat their homes.
John Mitchell, President of the UMWA, proposed mediation through the National Civic Federation, then a body of relatively progressive employers committed to collective bargaining as a means of resolving labor disputes. In the alternative, Mitchell proposed that a committee of eminent clergymen report on conditions in the coalfields. George Baer, President of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, one of the leading employers in the industry, brushed aside both proposals dismissively:
Anthracite mining is a business, and not a religious, sentimental, or academic proposition.... I could not if I would delegate this business management to even so highly a respectable body as the Civic Federation, nor can I call to my aid . . . the eminent prelates you have named.[5]
On May 12, 1902, the anthracite miners voting in Scranton, Pennsylvania, went out on strike. The maintenance employees, who had much steadier jobs and did not face the special dangers of underground work, walked out on June 2. The union had the support of roughly eighty percent of the workers in this area, or more than 100,000 strikers. Some 30,000 left the region, many headed for Midwestern bituminous mines. 10,000 men returned to Europe.[6] The strike soon produced threats of violence between the strikers on one side and strikebreakers, the Pennsylvania National Guard, local police, and hired detective agencies on the other.[7]
On June 8, President Theodore Roosevelt asked his Commissioner of Labor, Carroll D. Wright, to investigate the strike. Wright investigated and proposed reforms that acknowledged each side's position, recommending a nine-hour day on an experimental basis and limited collective bargaining. Roosevelt chose not to release the report, for fear of appearing to side with the union.
The owners refused to negotiate with the union. As George Baer wrote when urged to make concessions to the strikers and their union, the "rights and interests of the laboring man will be protected and cared for—not by the labor agitators, but by the Christian men to whom God in His infinite wisdom has given the control of the property interests of the country."[8] The union used this letter to sway public opinion in favor of the strike.
Roosevelt wanted to intervene, but he was told by his Attorney General, Philander Knox, that he had no authority to do so. Hanna and many others in the Republican Party were likewise concerned about the political implications if the strike dragged on into winter, when the need for anthracite was greatest. As Roosevelt told Hanna, "A coal famine in the winter is an ugly thing and I fear we shall see terrible suffering and grave disaster."[9]
Roosevelt convened a conference of representatives of government, labor, and management on October 3, 1902. The union considered the mere holding of a meeting to be tantamount to union recognition and took a conciliatory tone. The owners told Roosevelt that strikers had killed over 20 men and that he should use the power of government "to protect the man who wants to work, and his wife and children when at work."[10] With proper protection, the owner said that they would produce enough coal to end the fuel shortage. They refused to enter into any negotiations with the union.[10]
The governor sent in the National Guard, who protected the mines and the minority of men still working. Roosevelt attempted to persuade the union to end the strike with a promise that he would create a commission to study the causes of the strike and propose a solution, which Roosevelt promised to support with all of the authority of his office. Mitchell refused and his membership endorsed his decision by a nearly unanimous vote.[10]
The economics of coal revolved around two factors: most of the cost of production was wages for miners, and if the supply fell, the price would shoot up. In an age before the use of oil and electricity, there were no good substitutes. Profits were low in 1902 because of an over supply; therefore the owners welcomed a moderately long strike. They had huge stockpiles which increased daily in value. It was illegal for the owners to conspire to shut down production, but not so if the miners went on strike. The owners welcomed the strike, but they adamantly refused to recognize the union, because they feared the union would control the coal industry by manipulating strikes.[11]
Roosevelt continued to try to build support for a mediated solution, persuading former president Grover Cleveland to join the commission he was creating. He also considered nationalizing the mines under the leadership of John M. Schofield.[12] This would put the U.S. Army in control of the coalfields[13][14] to "run the mines as a receiver", Roosevelt wrote.[15]
J.P. Morgan, the dominant figure in American finance, had played a role in resolving the 1900 strike. He was deeply involved in this strike as well: his interests included the Reading Railroad, one of the largest employers of miners. He had installed George Baer, who spoke for the industry throughout the strike, as the head of the railroad.[16]
At the urging of Secretary of War Elihu Root, Morgan came up with another compromise proposal that provided for arbitration, while giving the industry the right to deny that it was bargaining with the union by directing that each employer and its employees communicate directly with the commission. The employers agreed on the condition that the five members be a military engineer, a mining engineer, a judge, an expert in the coal business, and an "eminent sociologist". The employers were willing to accept a union leader as the "eminent sociologist," so Roosevelt named E. E. Clark, head of the railway conductors' union, as the "eminent sociologist." After Catholic leaders exerted pressure, he added a sixth member, Catholic bishop John Lancaster Spalding, and Commissioner Wright as the seventh member.[17]
The anthracite strike ended, after 163 days, on October 23, 1902. The commissioners began work the next day, then spent a week touring the coal regions. Wright used the staff of the Department of Labor to collect data about the cost of living in the coalfields.
The commissioners held hearings in Scranton over the next three months, taking testimony from 558 witnesses, including 240 for the striking miners, 153 for nonunion mineworkers, 154 for the operators, and eleven called by the Commission itself. Baer made the closing arguments for the coal operators, while lawyer Clarence Darrow closed for the workers.
Although the commissioners heard some evidence of terrible conditions, they concluded that the "moving spectacle of horrors" represented only a small number of cases. By and large, social conditions in mine communities were found to be good, and miners were judged as only partly justified in their claim that annual earnings were not sufficient "to maintain an American standard of living."
Baer said in his closing arguments, "These men don't suffer. Why, hell, half of them don't even speak English".[18] Darrow, for his part, summed up the pages of testimony of mistreatment he had obtained in the soaring rhetoric for which he was famous: "We are working for democracy, for humanity, for the future, for the day will come too late for us to see it or know it or receive its benefits, but which will come, and will remember our struggles, our triumphs, our defeats, and the words which we spake."[19]
In the end, the rhetoric of both sides made little difference to the commission, which split the difference between mineworkers and mine owners. The miners asked for 20% wage increases, and most were given a 10% increase. The miners had asked for an eight-hour day and were awarded a nine-hour day instead of the standard ten hours then prevailing. While the operators refused to recognize the United Mine Workers, they were required to agree to a six-man arbitration board, made up of equal numbers of labor and management representatives, with the power to settle labor disputes. Mitchell considered that de facto recognition and called it a victory.[20]
John Mitchell wrote that eight men died during the five months, "three or four" of them strikers or sympathizers.[21] During the extensive arbitration testimony, after company owners made claims that the strikers had killed 21 men, Mitchell disagreed strongly and offered to resign his position if they could name the men and show proof.[22]
The first casualty occurred July 1. An immigrant striker named Anthony Giuseppe was found fatally shot near a Lehigh Valley Coal Company colliery in Old Forge. It was thought the Coal and Iron Police guarding the site shot blindly through a fence.[23] Street fighting in Shenandoah, Pennsylvania on July 30 between a mob of 5,000 striking miners versus police resulted in the beating death of Joseph Beddall, a merchant and the brother of the deputy sheriff.[24]
Contemporary reporting describes three other deaths and widespread shooting injuries among strikers and Shenandoah police.[25] On October 9, a striker named William Durham was shot and killed in Brownsville, Pennsylvania, near Shenandoah. He'd been loitering near the half-dynamited house of a non-union worker and disobeyed an order to halt.[26] The legality of that killing under martial law became a case, Commonwealth v. Shortall, that was taken to the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania.
The behavior and private role of the Coal and Iron Police during the strike led to the formation of the Pennsylvania State Police, on May 2, 1905, as Senate Bill 278 was signed into law by Governor Samuel W. Pennypacker.[27] The two forces operated in parallel until 1931.
Organized labor celebrated the outcome as a victory for the UMWA and American Federation of Labor unions generally. Membership in other unions soared, as moderates argued they could produce concrete benefits for workers much sooner than radical Socialists who planned to overthrow capitalism in the future. Mitchell proved his leadership skills and mastery of the problems of ethnic, skill, and regional divisions that had long plagued the union in the anthracite region.[28]
By contrast, the strikes of the radical Western Federation of Miners in the West often turned into full-scale warfare between strikers and both employers and the civil and military authorities. This strike was successfully mediated through the intervention of the federal government, which strove to provide a "Square Deal"—which Roosevelt took as the motto for his administration—to both sides. The settlement was an important step in the Progressive era reforms of the decade that followed. There were no more major coal strikes until the 1920s.[29]
Acerca de la psicología de la religión occidental y de la religión oriental de Carl Gustav Jung Mahakala en forma de un Brahman, siglo XVII, Rubin Museum of Art.Mahakala es una de las más importantes divinidades protectoras dentro del budismo tibetano, siendo a su vez una deidad de meditación.Tema(s) Psicología analítica, religiónEdición original en alemánTítulo original Zur Psychologie westlicher und östlicher ReligionCiudad ZúrichPaís Suiza[editar datos en Wikidata…
Shashadhar Acharya (kelahiran 1961) adalah seorang eksponen dansa Chhau dari Saraikela, Jharkhand, India. Pada 2020, ia dianugerahi penghormatan Padma Shri dari Pemerintah India atas kontribusinya dalam bidang Kesenian.[1] Referensi ^ Dance as a legacy. www.telegraphindia.com (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2020-02-17. lbsPenerima Padma Shri dalam bidang Kesenian1950-an Omkarnath Thakur (1955) Sthanam Narasimha Rao (1956) Sudhir Khastgir (1957) Dwaram Venkataswamy Naidu (19…
هذه المقالة بحاجة لصندوق معلومات. فضلًا ساعد في تحسين هذه المقالة بإضافة صندوق معلومات مخصص إليها. يفتقر محتوى هذه المقالة إلى الاستشهاد بمصادر. فضلاً، ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة من خلال إضافة مصادر موثوق بها. أي معلومات غير موثقة يمكن التشكيك بها وإزالتها. (يناير 2022) هذه المق
Віллі Гесс Основна інформаціяДата народження 1859[1][2][3]Місце народження Мангайм, Велике герцогство Баден, Німецький союзДата смерті 1939[1][2][3]Місце смерті Берлін, Третій РейхГромадянство Німецька імперіяПрофесії скрипаль, музикознавець, музичн…
Вілла-д'АддаVilla d'Adda Комуна Країна ІталіяРегіон ЛомбардіяПровінція БерґамоКод ISTAT 016238Поштові індекси 24030Телефонний код 035Координати 45°43′00″ пн. ш. 9°28′00″ сх. д. / 45.71667° пн. ш. 9.46667° сх. д. / 45.71667; 9.46667Координати: 45°43′00″ пн. ш. 9°28′00″ …
This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Risk Ten Shekel Shirt album – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) 2003 studio album by Ten Shekel ShirtRiskStudio album by Ten Shekel ShirtReleased2003StudioPower Station (Waterford, Connecti…
Untuk orang lain dengan nama yang sama, lihat Mulyadi. Ir. H.MulyadiAnggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik IndonesiaMasa jabatan1 Oktober 2009 – 23 September 2020[1]PenggantiRezka Oktoberia[2]Daerah pemilihanSumatera Barat II Informasi pribadiLahir13 Maret 1963 (umur 60)Bukit Apit, Guguk Panjang, Bukittinggi, Sumatera BaratKebangsaanIndonesiaPartai politikPartai DemokratSuami/istriMefiana MalianiAnak2Orang tuaK. St. Palindih (ayah)[3]Alma materUniversita…
Norvège Données clés Surnom Les Vikings Données clés Entrée au RLIF 2008 Sélectionneur Lars Haigh Capitaine Kristoffer Milligan Données clés Premier match officiel GB Pioneers (sélection britannique) 24-00 Norvège4 juillet 2009 Plus large victoire Norvège 40-22 Allemagne15 septembre 2018 Plus large défaite Malte 64-24 Norvège2 septembre 2011 Données clés Coupe du monde Phases finales : jamais qualifiée modifier L'équipe de Norvège de rugby à XIII est l'équipe qui repré…
Czech javelin thrower Barbora ŠpotákováBarbora ŠpotákováPersonal informationBorn (1981-06-30) 30 June 1981 (age 42)Jablonec nad Nisou, CzechoslovakiaHeight1.82 m (6 ft 0 in)[1]Weight80 kg (176 lb)[1]SportCountry Czech RepublicSportAthleticsEventJavelin throw Medal record Event 1st 2nd 3rd Olympic Games 2 0 1 World Championships 3 1 0 European Championships 1 1 2 Continental Cup 1 0 0 Universiade 1 0 0 Total 8 2 3 Olympic Games 2008 Beijing…
Pedestrian bridge overpass spanning the Eastshore Freeway (Interstate 80/580) in Berkeley This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) View of the bridge looking east The Berkeley I-80 bridge also known as the University Avenue pedestrian bridge and the Berkeley Marina overpass is a 15-foot (4…
Antacid and analgesic drug Bromo-Seltzer newspaper ad (1908) Emerson Drug Company's Bromo-Seltzer Tower headquarters in Baltimore A horse-drawn Bromo-Seltzer wagon Bromo-Seltzer was a brand of antacid formulated to relieve pain occurring together with heartburn, upset stomach, or acid indigestion. It originally contained sodium bromide and acetanilide, both toxic substances which were eventually removed. Its final formulation contained the pain reliever acetaminophen and two reactive chemicals…
本條目存在以下問題,請協助改善本條目或在討論頁針對議題發表看法。 此條目剧情、虛構用語或人物介紹过长过细,需清理无关故事主轴的细节、用語和角色介紹。 (2019年2月20日)劇情、用語和人物介紹都只是用於了解故事主軸,輔助讀者了解現實向的內容,而不是像資料庫般將所有出現的內容記下。请协助清理不必要的细节、用語和角色,让情节介绍更为简洁。ACG类條目的…
Fictional character Ultraman TaroUltra Series characterUltraman Taro as seen in episode 11 of Ultraman Ginga.First appearanceUltraman Taro (1973)Created byTerui SatakeDesigned byAkihiko Iguchi[1]Portrayed byHiroshi Nagasawa[2]Voiced by Japanese Saburō Shinoda (1973-74) Masako Nozawa (1984) Hiroya Ishimaru (1984-2023) Ryo Horikawa (1996) Miyu Irino (2018; stage) English William Winckler (William Winckler Productions) Bill Sullivan (2019; UGF) In-universe informationSpeciesUltraGe…
2023 German sci-fi thriller television series Not to be confused with Swarm (TV series). The SwarmOfficial posterGenreScience fictionBased onThe Swarmby Frank SchätzingScreenplay bySteven LallyMarissa LestradeChris LuntMichael A. WalkerDirected byBarbara EderLuke WatsonPhilipp StölzlStarring Cécile de France Alexander Karim Leonie Benesch Joshua Odjick Music byDascha DauenhauerCountry of originGermanyOriginal languagesEnglishGermanFrenchDutchSwedishJapaneseNo. of episodes8ProductionExecutive …
8th President of Argentina This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: José Evaristo Uriburu – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Evaristo de Uriburu and the second …
Sporting event delegationPortugal at the1956 Summer OlympicsIOC codePORNOCOlympic Committee of PortugalWebsitewww.comiteolimpicoportugal.pt (in Portuguese)in Melbourne/StockholmCompetitors11 in 2 sportsMedals Gold 0 Silver 0 Bronze 0 Total 0 Summer Olympics appearances (overview)19121920192419281932193619481952195619601964196819721976198019841988199219962000200420082012201620202024 Portugal competed at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Australia and Stockholm, Sweden (equestrian events…
Breakdown product of creatine phosphate Not to be confused with creatine or Creatine kinase. Creatinine Names Preferred IUPAC name 2-Amino-1-methyl-5H-imidazol-4-one[citation needed] Other names 2-Amino-1-methylimidazol-4-ol[citation needed] Identifiers CAS Number 60-27-5 Y 3D model (JSmol) Interactive imageInteractive image 3DMet B00175 Beilstein Reference 112061 ChEBI CHEBI:16737 N ChEMBL ChEMBL65567 N ChemSpider 21640982 Y DrugBank DB11846 ECHA InfoCard 100…
This article is about the area in London. For the short story by Stephen King, see Crouch End (short story). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Crouch End – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Human settlement in EnglandCr…
Московское археологическое общество Дата основания 17 (29) февраля 1864 Дата роспуска июнь 1923 Тип организация и научное общество[d] Лидер Уваров, Алексей Сергеевич, Прасковья Сергеевна Уварова и Дмитрий Николаевич Анучин Центр Москва, СССР Медиафайлы на …
1978 Zambian general election ← 1973 12 December 1978 1983 → Presidential electionTurnout66.72% Nominee Kenneth Kaunda Party UNIP Popular vote 1,026,127 Percentage 80.74% President before election Kenneth Kaunda UNIP Elected President Kenneth Kaunda UNIP Politics of Zambia Constitution Human rights Government President Hakainde Hichilema Vice-President Mutale Nalumango Cabinet Legislature National Assembly Speaker: Nelly Mutti Constituencies Elections General 19…
Lokasi Pengunjung: 18.118.252.232