Malak-Malak (also spelt Mullukmulluk, Malagmalag), also known as Ngolak-Wonga (Nguluwongga), is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken by the Mulluk-Mulluk people. Malakmalak is nearly extinct, with children growing up speaking Kriol or English instead. The language is spoken in the Daly River area around Woolianna and Nauiyu. The Kuwema or Tyaraity (Tyeraty) variety is distinct.
Classification
Malakmalak was formerly classified as an independent member of the Northern Daly languages and is considered a language isolate. Along with the "Anson Bay" group of Wagaydy (Patjtjamalh, Wadjiginy, Kandjerramalh) and the unattested Giyug. Green concluded that Wagaydy and Malakmalak were two separate language families.[4] Some later classifications have linked them such as Bowern (2011).[5] However, the Wagaydy people are recent arrivals in the area, and their language may only similar due to borrowing.[6]AIATSIS and Glottolog both treat Wagaydy as an isolate and Giyug as unclassifiable.
In contemporary usage, "Northern Daly" (e.g. Harvey 2003,[7] Cahir 2006,[8] Nordlinger 2017[9]) most often refers specifically to the group of languages which includes Malakmalak and Tyerraty[10] (also known as Guwema), a variety with which MalakMalak differs significantly in vocabulary (65% according to Tryon's 200 word list), but is very close to morphologically.[11]
EMPH 3SG.M.sit.PST stay.give sit-CONT thing/person water underneath-LOC
"he sits down underneath the water"
Morphosyntactic properties
MalakMalak's verb phrase uses complex predicates. These consist of an inflecting verb that has properties of person, number and tense. MalakMalak only has six such verbs. In example (4), yuyu and vida are inflecting verbs. Additionally, there are coverbs which have aspectual properties, but do not inflect for number, tense or person. They occur with inflecting verbs. They are unlimited in number and new verbs are also borrowed into this class. In (4), kubuk-karrarr, dat-tyed, and ka are coverbs. They can also form serial verbs (kubuk-karrarr, dat-tyed).[15]
(4)
Complex Predicates and Serial Coverbs
kubuk-karrarr
swim-move.up
dat-tjed
look-stand
yuyu
3SG.M.stand.PST
yanak
one
ka
come
yida=ke
3SG.M.go.PST=FOC
kubuk-karrarr dat-tjed yuyu yanak ka yida=ke
swim-move.up look-stand 3SG.M.stand.PST one come 3SG.M.go.PST=FOC
"he crossed the river and looked once, then he came here"
Spatial Language
MalakMalak employs all three "classic" types of spatial Frames of Reference: intrinsic, relative and absolute. Additionally, the language uses place names and body-part orientation to talk about space.[16][17] The intrinsic Frame requires some kind of portioning of the ground object or landmark into named facets from which search domains can be projected.[18] In English this would be, for example, the tree is in front of the man. And in MalakMalak it would be (5).
(5)
intrinsic Frame of Reference
tjung
tree
angundu-na
behind-LOC
muyu
3SG.N*.stand.PST
tjung angundu-na muyu
tree behind-LOC 3SG.N*.stand.PST
"the tree was behind (the man)"
The relative Frame of Reference involves mapping from the observer's own axes (front, back, left, right) onto the ground object.[18] An English example is the ball is on the right. In MalakMalak it would be (6)
(6)
relative Frame of Reference
yerra
now
tjalmiyiny
right
dek
place
kantjuk
up/upwards
purrat-ma
jump-CONT
wuta
3SG.N.go.PST
yerra tjalmiyiny dek kantjuk purrat-ma wuta
now right place up/upwards jump-CONT 3SG.N.go.PST
"now the ball was on the right, jumping up (lit. jumping in an upward place on the right)"
The absolute Frame of Reference requires xed bearings that are instantly available to all members of the community.[18] An English example is the opera is west of here. In MalakMalak, three different types of absolute frames can be used. Those based on the course of the sun (east/west) (7a), on prevailing winds (northwesterly/southeasterly) (7b), and on two sides of the prominent Daly River (northeastern/southwestern bank) (7c).
^Green, I. "The Genetic Status of Murrinh-patha" in Evans, N., ed. "The Non-Pama-Nyungan Languages of Northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent’s most linguistically complex region". Studies in Language Change, 552. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, 2003.
^Harvey, M. (2003). "The evolution of verb systems in the Eastern Daly language family." In N. Evans ed. The Non-Pama Nyungan languages of Northern Australia. Canberra, Pacific Linguistics. pp. 159-184.
^Cahir, P. (2006). "Verb functions and Argument Structure in MalakMalak: a Northern daly Language of the Daly River Region, Northern Territory." Honours Thesis. University of Melbourne.
^ abcLevinson, Stephen; Wilkins, David (2006). Grammars of Space: Explorations in cognitive diversity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–21.
^Tryon, Darrell T. "The Daly River Languages: A Survey". In Aguas, E.F. and Tryon, D. editors, Papers in Australian Linguistics No. 3. A-14:21-49. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1968. doi:10.15144/PL-A14.21
^Blake, Barry J. (1981). Australian Aboriginal languages: a general introduction. London: Angus & Robertson Publishers. ISBN0-207-14044-8.
Birk, D. B. W. (1976). The MalakMalak language, Daly River (Western Arnhem Land). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Hoffmann, Dorothea (2015). “Moving through space and (not?) time: North Australian dreamtime narratives,” Narratives from the South Pacific: Sociocultural explorations, ed. by F. Gounder. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 15-35
Hoffmann, Dorothea (2014). “Mapping the Language: How a dying language loses its place in the world”, Endangered Words, Signs of Revival, ed. by Ghil'ad Zuckermann, J. Miller, and J. Morley, Adelaide: Australex, 1-18
