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Little spotted kiwi
	Foraging at Zealandia EcoSanctuary, Wellington
Conservation status
	; Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Infraclass:	Palaeognathae
Order:	Apterygiformes
Family:	Apterygidae
Genus:	Apteryx
Species:	A. owenii
Binomial name
	Apteryx owenii; Gould, 1847
Subspecies
	A. o. owenii Gould, 1847 South Island little spotted kiwi; †A. o. iredalei (Mathews, 1935) North Island little spotted kiwi;
	The distribution of little spotted kiwi. Predator-free islands: Hen Island; Tiritiri Matangi; Red Mercury Island; Motuihe Island; Kapiti Island; Long Island; Anchor Island; Chalky Island; Mainland: A. Shakespear Open Sanctuary B. Cape Sanctuary C. Zealandia
Synonyms
	List Kiwi owenii (Gould, 1847) ; Stictapteryx owenii (Gould, 1847) ; Stictapteryx owenii owenii (Gould, 1847) ; Apteryx mollis Potts, 1873 ; Apteryx fusca Rowley, 1875 ; Pseudapteryx gracilis Lydekker, 1891 ; Apteryx oweni occidentalis Rothschild, 1893 ; Apteryx occidentalis Rothschild, 1893 ; Apteryx australis occidentalis Rothschild, 1893 ; Stictapteryx owenii iredalei Mathews, 1935 ;

The little spotted kiwi or little grey kiwi^[2] (Apteryx owenii) is a small flightless bird in the kiwi family, Apterygidae. It is the smallest of the five kiwi species, at about 0.9 to 1.9 kg (2–4+1⁄4 lb), about the size of a bantam. It is endemic to New Zealand, and in pre-European times occurred in both main islands, but is now restricted to a number of small offshore islands, and mainland reserves protected by pest-exclusion fences. The little spotted kiwi was on the brink of extinction when a conservation effort took place 100 years ago. Five individuals were translocated from the South Island of New Zealand to Kapiti Island. Today, the Kapiti Island population has grown, with around 1200 birds.^[4]

Taxonomy

The little spotted kiwi is a ratite and belongs to the Apterygiformes order, and the Apterygidae family. The genus name Apteryx means 'without wings' and the species is named owenii after Sir Richard Owen.^[5] Only the nominate subspecies A. o. owenii survives. The subspecies A. o. iredalei from the North Island became extinct in the late 19th century;^[6] its status as a subspecies is not universally accepted as valid though.^[7]

The little spotted kiwi was first described in 1847 by John Gould from a specimen obtained by Frederick Strange and sent to England.^[8] The locality is not recorded but it probably came from Nelson or Marlborough. In 1873, Henry Potts published an account of its habitats, and about this time specimens were collected in South Westland and sent to England.^[2]

A specimen described as Apteryx occidentalis in 1893 is often considered a junior synonym of this species, but a study in 2002 indicated this may be a hybrid between Apteryx australis and Apteryx owenii.^[9]

Description

The little spotted kiwi has a length of 35 to 45 cm (14–18 in) and the weight of the male is 0.88 to 1.36 kg (1 lb 15 oz – 3 lb 0 oz) and the female weighs 1 to 1.95 kg (2+1⁄4–4+1⁄4 lb), making it the smallest species of kiwi.^[7] Their feathers are pale-mottled grey, with fine white mottling, and are shaggy looking.^[10]^{[full citation needed]} They lack aftershafts and barbules. They have large vibrissae feathers around the gape. They lack a tail, but have a small pygostyle.^[2] Their bill is ivory and long and their legs are pale.^[10]

Illustration by J. G. Keulemans from a work by G. D. Rowley, 1870s
Burrow entrance, Zealandia

The little spotted kiwi had an obligate louse that parasitized on it, Rallicola pilgrimi. In an example of conservation-induced extinction, all lice were killed while ensuring captive kiwis for survival.^[11]^[12]

Distribution and habitat

Studies on Kapiti Island show that they prefer flax, seral, and older forest habitats. Lower numbers are found in rough grassland and scrub, indicating that either they prefer other habitats or they simply need a larger territory to support themselves in these areas.^[10]

Behaviour

Little spotted kiwis eat grubs and other small insects that are found underground, and occasionally eat berries. Earthworms, cockchafer beetle larvae, caterpillars, cranefly larvae, and spiders are their most common foods.^[13] Fruit of the hinau tree is also commonly consumed.^[13] Annelids make up the largest percentage of the bird's diet.^[13] Using its sharp talons and long beak, it digs into the ground and then shoves its long beak down the softened ground. As they cannot fly to get to insects or food on trees and their eyesight is very poor, they depend on a keen sense of smell, long beak and talons.^[2] They are nocturnal. Little spotted kiwi call occasionally each night to advertise territory and to maintain contact with partners. Often pairs will duet. They are very territorial, and fight conspecifics with their sharp claws, resulting in many feathers on the ground.

Reproduction

They nest in an excavated burrow, dug by both birds and sometimes lined with plant material. Eggs are laid from July to January. The clutch size is one to two eggs (15% have 2), which are incubated by the male for 63–76 days. Chicks stay in the nest for 2–3 weeks after hatching and require feeding for 4 weeks.^[2] Little spotted kiwi eggs weigh about 23% the weight of the parent bird; the largest ratio among kiwis and birds in general; but exceeded by some sea-living birds; such as the Guadalupe murrelet and storm petrel.

Conservation

At the time it was described, the species was common on the western side of the South Island and in Marlborough. Then a regular trade in skins sprang up and large numbers were collected for European museums. Further, with the advance of European settlement, birds were killed by prospectors and others for food and their attendant dogs and cats took their toll. The species was extinct on the North Island by 1938 when the last four South Island birds were moved from d'Urville Island to the population that had been established on Kapiti Island.^[7] After they were released on Kapiti Island, they were also moved to Red Mercury Island, Hen Island, Tiritiri Matangi Island, Chalky Island, and Long Island in the Queen Charlotte Sound. In 2000, about 20 little spotted kiwis were released into Karori Wildlife Sanctuary. This was the first time since the 19th century that little spotted kiwis could be found on the mainland of the North Island.^[10] In 2015, 20 kiwis were translocated from Kapiti Island to Anchor Island.

As the smallest species of kiwi, the little spotted kiwi would be very vulnerable to the main kiwi predators like cats, dogs, and stoats, however it is now restricted to several off-shore island reserves (mainly Kapiti Island) which are mostly free of introduced predators. The little spotted kiwi's conservation status is listed as "range restricted" (by 'Save the Kiwi'), with a growing population. Formerly classified as "vulnerable" by the IUCN,^[14] it was suspected to be more numerous than generally assumed. Following the evaluation of its population size, this was found to be correct, and it was consequently downlisted to "near threatened" status in 2008 as, although not rare, its small range puts it at risk. The lack of predators, apart from weka (Gallirallus australis), is important to its increasing numbers. It has an occurrence range of 31 km² (12 sq mi), and a population of 1600 was estimated in the year 2012.^[1]

**Breeding population and trends**^[10]
Location	Population	Date	Trend
Hen Island	50	2012	Increasing
Kapiti Island	c.1200	2012	Stable
Red Mercury Island	70	2012	Increasing
Long Island	50	2012	Increasing
Tiritiri Matangi	80	2012	Increasing
Zealandia Wildlife Sanctuary	120	2012	Increasing
Motuihe Island	30	2012	Stable
Anchor Island	20	2015	Increasing
Chalky Island	50	2012	Stable
Total (New Zealand)	1670	2012	Increasing

Citations

^ ^a ^b BirdLife International (2016). "Apteryx owenii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22678129A92756395. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22678129A92756395.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Davies, S. J. J. F. (2003)
^ Gould, John (1847). "On a new species of Apteryx". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 15 (1): 93–94. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1847.tb00159.x.
^ Ramstad (2013). "Genetic consequences of a century of protection: serial founder events and survival of the little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii)". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 280 (1762). PubMed Central. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.0576. PMC 3673049. PMID 23677342.
^ Gotch, A. F. (1995)
^ Hume, J. P.; Walters, M. (2012). Extinct Birds. London: A & C Black. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-1-4081-5725-1.
^ ^a ^b ^c Folch, A.; Jutglar, F.; Garcia, E.F.J. (2018). del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A.; de Juana, Eduardo (eds.). "Little Spotted Kiwi (Apteryx owenii)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions. doi:10.2173/bow.liskiw1.01. S2CID 243646391. Retrieved 18 August 2018.
^ Whittell, H. M. (1947). "Frederick Strange". The Australian Zoologist. 11: 96–114.
^ Herbert, John; Daugherty, Charles H. (2002). "Genetic variation, systematics and management of kiwi (Apteryx spp.)". Some early 1990s studies in kiwi. Retrieved 2 December 2024.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e BirdLife International (2008a)
^ Rózsa, Lajos; Vas, Zoltán (2014-08-22). "Co-extinct and critically co-endangered species of parasitic lice, and conservation-induced extinction: should lice be reintroduced to their hosts?" (PDF). Oryx. 49 (1): 107–110. doi:10.1017/s0030605313000628.
^ "Rallicola (Aptericola) pilgrimi. NZTCS". nztcs.org.nz. Retrieved 2023-08-23.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Apteryx owenii (Little spotted kiwi)". Animal Diversity Web.
^ BirdLife International (2008b)

General and cited references

BirdLife International (2008a). "Little Spotted Kiwi – BirdLife Species Factsheet". Data Zone. Retrieved 6 Feb 2009.
BirdLife International (2008b). "What's New (2008)". IUCN RedList. Archived from the original on 2007-08-28. Retrieved 4 Feb 2009.
Davies, S.J.J.F. (2003). "Kiwis". In Hutchins, Michael (ed.). Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Vol. 8 Birds I: Tinamous and Ratites to Hoatzins (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. pp. 89–90, 92–93. ISBN 0-7876-5784-0.
Gotch, A.F. (1995) [1979]. "Kiwis". Latin Names Explained. A Guide to the Scientific Classifications of Reptiles, Birds & Mammals. London: Facts on File. p. 181. ISBN 0-8160-3377-3.
"Little spotted kiwi". Save the Kiwi. Retrieved 20 May 2023.