He attended school in Newburyport and Framingham until he was 15. In August 1825, he passed entrance exams at Harvard University, though when the college requested payment of tuition fees for the first two years, he chose not to attend. He began a program of self-education, later teaching school in Gloucester, North Bedford, Fairhaven and Newburyport.[3]
Pike was an imposing figure; 6 feet (1.83 m) tall and 300 pounds (140 kg) with hair that reached his shoulders and a long beard.[4][5] In 1831, he left Massachusetts to travel west, first stopping in Nashville, Tennessee.
He later moved to St. Louis, Missouri, where he joined a hunting and trading expedition to Taos, New Mexico.[1] En route his horse broke and ran, forcing Pike to walk the remaining 500 miles (800 km) to Taos. After this, he joined a trapping expedition to the Llano Estacado in New Mexico and Texas. Trapping was minimal and, after traveling about 1,300 miles (2,100 km), half of it on foot, he finally arrived at Fort Smith, Arkansas.[5]
Career
Pike, about 1850
Settling in Arkansas in 1833, Pike taught in a school and wrote a series of articles for the Little RockArkansas Advocate under the pen name of "Casca."[6] The articles were sufficiently well received for him to be asked to join the newspaper's staff. Under Pike's administration, the Advocate promoted the viewpoint of the Whig Party in a politically volatile and divided Arkansas in December 1832.[6] After marrying Mary Ann Hamilton in 1834, he purchased the newspaper.[7]
He was the first reporter for the Arkansas Supreme Court. He wrote a book (published anonymously), titled The Arkansas Form Book, which was a guidebook for lawyers.[6] Pike began to study law and was admitted to the bar in 1837, selling the Advocate the same year. (At least one source indicates that Pike read Kent and Blackstone and was admitted to the bar in 1834 by Superior Court judge Thomas J. Lacy, after a perfunctory examination.)[8]
He proved to be a highly effective lawyer, representing clients in courts at every level. This continued after he received permission in 1849 to practice before the United States Supreme Court.[6]
He also made several contacts among the Native American tribes in the area. He specialized in claims on behalf of Native Americans against the federal government.[4] In 1852, he represented the Creek Nation before the Supreme Court in a claim regarding ceded tribal land. In 1854 he advocated for the Choctaw and Chickasaw, although compensation later awarded to the tribes in 1856 and 1857 was insufficient.[7] These relationships were to influence the course of his Civil War service.
Pike also began a campaign of newspaper essays urging support for the construction of a transcontinental railroad to extend from New Orleans to the Pacific coast. He moved to New Orleans in 1853 and prepared to pass the state bar in furtherance of his campaign. He ultimately secured a charter from the Louisiana State Legislature for a project, following which he returned to Little Rock in 1857.[6]
He joined the anti-Catholic Know Nothing Party at its founding;[6] in the summer of 1854, he helped introduce the party in Arkansas.[9] He attended the national convention in 1856, but walked out when it failed to adopt a pro-slavery platform.[6]
Additionally, Pike wrote on several legal subjects. He also continued writing poetry, a hobby he had begun in his youth in Massachusetts. His poems were highly regarded in his day, but are now mostly forgotten. Several volumes of his works were privately published posthumously by his daughter. In 1859, he received an honorary Master of Arts degree from Harvard.[10]
Poetry
As a young man of letters, Pike wrote poetry, and he continued to do so for the rest of his life. At 23, he published his first poem, "Hymns to the Gods." Later work was printed in literary journals such as Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine and local newspapers. His first collection of poetry, Prose Sketches and Poems Written in the Western Country, was published in 1834.[5] He later gathered many of his poems and republished them in Hymns to the Gods and Other Poems (1872). After his death these were published again in Gen. Albert Pike's Poems (1900) and Lyrics and Love Songs (1916).[6]
The authorship of "The Old Canoe" was attributed to Pike. He was suggested as author because about the time of its publication, when it was going the rounds of the press, probably without any credit, a doggerel called "The Old Canoe" was composed about Pike by one of his political foes. The subject was a canoe in which he left Columbia, Tennessee, when a young man practicing law in that place. Pike told Senator Edward W. Carmack that he was not the author of "The Old Canoe," and could not imagine how he ever got the credit for it. The rightful author was Emily Rebecca Page.[11]
Pike first joined the fraternal Independent Order of Odd Fellows in 1840. He next joined a Masonic Lodge, where he became extremely active in the affairs of the organization. In 1859 he was elected Sovereign Grand Commander of the Scottish Rite's Southern Jurisdiction.[12] He remained Sovereign Grand Commander for the rest of his life, devoting a large amount of his time to developing the rituals of the order.[13]
He published a book called Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry in 1871, the first of several editions.[14] This helped the Order grow during the nineteenth century. He also researched and wrote the seminal treatise Indo-Aryan Deities and Worship as Contained in the Rig-Veda. In the United States, Pike is still considered an eminent[15] and influential[16] Freemason, primarily in the Scottish Rite Southern Jurisdiction.[17]
When the Mexican–American War started, Pike joined the Arkansas Mounted Infantry Regiment and was commissioned as a company commander with the rank of captain in June 1846. With his regiment, he fought in the Battle of Buena Vista. Pike was discharged in June 1847. He and his commander, Colonel John Selden Roane, had several differences of opinion. This situation led finally to an "inconclusive" duel between Pike and Roane on July 29, 1847, near Fort Smith, Arkansas.[12] Although several shots were fired in the duel, nobody was injured, and the two were persuaded by their seconds to discontinue it.[19]
After the war, Pike returned to the practice of law, moving to New Orleans for a time beginning in 1853.[6] He wrote another book, Maxims of the Roman Law and Some of the Ancient French Law, as Expounded and Applied in Doctrine and Jurisprudence.[20] Although unpublished, this book increased his reputation among his associates in law. He returned to Arkansas in 1857, gaining some amount of prominence in the legal field.
At the Southern Commercial Convention of 1854, Pike said the South should remain in the Union and seek equality with the North, but if the South "were forced into an inferior status, she would be better out of the Union than in it."[21] His stand was that state's rights superseded national law and he supported the idea of a Southern secession. This stand is made clear in his pamphlet of 1861, "State or Province, Bond or Free?"[6]
American Civil War
In 1861, Pike penned the lyrics to "Dixie to Arms!"[22] At the beginning of the war, Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to Native American nations. In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one of the most important being with Cherokee chief John Ross, which was concluded in 1861. At the time, Ross agreed to support the Confederacy, which promised the tribes a Native American state if it won the war. Ross later changed his mind and left Indian Territory, but the succeeding Cherokee government maintained the alliance.[4]
Pike was commissioned as a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army on November 22, 1861, and given a command in the Indian Territory. With Brig. Gen. Ben McCulloch, Pike trained three Confederate regiments of Indian cavalry, most of whom belonged to the "civilized tribes", whose loyalty to the Confederacy was variable. Although initially victorious at the Battle of Pea Ridge (Elkhorn Tavern) in March 1862,[1] Pike's unit was defeated later in a counterattack, after falling into disarray. When Pike was ordered in May 1862 to send troops to Arkansas, he resigned in protest.[7] As in the previous war, Pike came into conflict with his superior officers, at one time drafting a letter to Jefferson Davis complaining about his direct superior.[23]
After Pea Ridge, it was alleged that Pike's Native American troops had scalped soldiers in the field.[24] The single incident of scalping was, however, done by a Native American acting on his own. Official records submitted to the Headquarters Department of Indian territory reveal that Pike "regarded [the incident] with horror" and that he was personally "angry and disgusted." He also filed a report in which he said it caused him the "utmost pain and regret."[25]
Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Hindman charged Pike with mishandling of money and material, ordering his arrest.[26] The incident arose when Hindman, who had declared martial law in Arkansas, ordered Pike to turn over weapons and Native American Indian treaty funds. Pike thought the action was illegal and refused.[27] Both these charges were later found to be considerably lacking in evidence; nevertheless Pike, facing arrest, escaped into the hills of Arkansas, submitting his resignation from the Confederate States Army on July 12, 1862.[26] He was arrested on November 3 on charges of insubordination and treason, and held briefly in Warren, Texas. His resignation was accepted on November 11, and he was allowed to return to Arkansas.[26]
As Union troops advanced toward the state capital in September 1863, the State Supreme Court retreated to Washington, Arkansas, which was made the new Confederate state capital. Associate Justice Hulbert F. Fairchild resigned because the new location was too far from his family, and Pike was appointed as his replacement.[28]
In the wake of the war, Pike moved to New York City, then for a short time to Canada.[6] On June 24, 1865, Pike applied to President Andrew Johnson for a pardon, disowning his earlier interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. He said he now planned "to pursue the arts of peace, to practice my profession, to live among my books, and to labour to benefit my fellows and my race by other than political courses". President Johnson pardoned him on April 23, 1866.[29]
Later life and death
During the Arkansas political conflict known as the Brooks-Baxter War, Pike was one of the lawyers to speak on behalf of Elisha Baxter.[30]
Pike died on April 2, 1891, at the Scottish Rite Temple of the Supreme Council in Washington DC, at the age of 81,[32] and was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery, despite the fact that he had left instructions for his body to be cremated.[33] In 1944, his remains were moved to the House of the Temple, headquarters of the Southern Jurisdiction of the Scottish Rite.[34] The House of the Temple contains numerous memorials and artifacts related to Pike, including his personal library.
Legacy
A memorial to Pike was erected in 1901 in the Judiciary Square neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The location was appropriate considering that Pike had sued the government to secure Native American rights. The statue portrayed him as a private citizen and Freemason. He was the only former Confederate military officer with an outdoor statue in Washington, D.C., and in 2019 Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton called for its removal.[35] On June 19, 2020, protesters tore down the statue and set it ablaze, in connection with the George Floyd protests because of Pike's association with the Confederacy and of his alleged association with the Ku Klux Klan.[31]
In 1865, Pike publicly performed a ceremony of Masonic baptism in New York City.[39] The ceremony was greeted with skepticism by many American Masons including Albert Mackey, but was based on older European Masonic baptism ceremonies that began in the 1820s.[40] However, some, like the New York Times, reacted positively to the ceremony describing it as "interesting" and "novel." In the ritual, six children were baptized by Pike with water and consecrated oil.[41]
Racism
In the aftermath of the Civil War, as former Confederates found themselves barred from the ballot box, Pike remained deeply opposed to black suffrage, insisting that "the white race, and that race alone, shall govern this country. It is the only one that is fit to govern, and it is the only one that shall."[42]
Regarding membership in the Freemasons, Pike is quoted as saying, "Prince Hall Lodge was as regular a Lodge as any Lodge created by competent authority. It had a perfect right to establish other Lodges and make itself a Mother Lodge. I am not inclined to meddle in the matter. I took my obligations from white men, not from negroes. When I have to accept negroes as brothers or leave masonry, I shall leave it. Better let the thing drift."
His attitudes towards African-Americans may have changed towards the end of his life. A 1945 letter written by Willard W. Allen, the Sovereign Grand Commander of the United Supreme Council, S.J. Prince Hall Affiliation noted that "what practically all Masonic scholars know very well, viz., that in the closing years of General Pike's Masonic career, he became a very staunch friend of Negro Masonry."[43] Pike had become a personal friend of Thornton A. Jackson, Supreme Grand Commander of the United Supreme Council, Southern Jurisdiction, Prince Hall Affiliation and even gifted to Thornton his complete set of rituals for Prince Hall Scottish Rite Masonry to use.[44]
Involvement with the Ku Klux Klan
Pike first wrote about the Ku Klux Klan less than three years after the Klan's founding, in an April 16, 1868 editorial in the Memphis Daily Appeal. In the editorial, Pike indicated that his main problems lay not with its aims, but with its methods and leadership. Later in this editorial, he proposed "one great Order of Southern Brotherhood", a secret society which would have been a larger and more centrally organized version of the Klan: "If it were in our power, if it could be effected, we would unite every white man in the South, who is opposed to negro suffrage, into one great Order of Southern Brotherhood, with an organization complete, active, vigorous, in which a few should execute the concentrated will of all, and whose very existence should be concealed from all but its members."[42][45][46]
In 1905's Ku Klux Klan: Its Origin, Growth and Disbandment, the author Walter Lynwood Fleming, lists Pike as the Klan's "chief judicial officer".[47] Susan Lawrence Davis, whose father was a founding member of the Klan in Alabama,[48] writes in her sympathetic account titled Authentic History: Ku Klux Klan, 1865–1877, published in 1924, that Pike was personally chosen by Nathan Bedford Forrest to serve as the Klan's "Chief Judicial Officer" and to head the Klan in Arkansas as "Grand Dragon of that Realm."[49] In 1939's Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871, Stanley Horn, who served as president of the Tennessee Historical Society, also reports that Forrest appointed Pike to lead the Klan in Arkansas and credits him with a surge of local Klan activity in April 1868. Horn says that a pro-Klan poem, "Death's Brigade", is attributed to Pike, although "of course, he did not have the bravado to claim that honor publicly at that time."[50]Southern Agrarian poet John Gould Fletcher, who grew up in Little Rock in a house that Pike built,[51][52] likewise believed that Pike wrote the poem.[53]
When the Ku Klux Klan was revived in 1915, there even existed an Albert Pike Klan, a local chapter of the organization based in Illinois.[54]
In 1971, Allen W. Trelease published White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction, and claimed that the office that Pike allegedly held in the KKK was not mentioned in "The Prescript", the Klan constitution.[42] However, the office of Grand Dragon, which Davis claims Pike once held, is explicitly mentioned in the 1867 Klan constitution.[55][56] At the same time, Trelease noted that "Pike may well have affiliated with the Klan."[57] As evidence, Trelease notes that Pike "was intrigued by secret societies and rituals" and "sympathized with the Klan's stated objectives."
In his 1997 biography of Pike, Walter Lee Brown asserts that Pike was not a member of the Klan and Brown found "no contemporary, nor no reliable late evidence that Pike ever joined the Klan."[42] Brown claims the work of Fleming, Davis and Horn are "unreliable histories", but offers no further evidence other than citing Trelease, which, in Brown's interpretation "cast's doubt on Pike's membership."
^Albert's descent from his immigrant ancestor John Pike is as follows: John Pike (1572–1654); John Pike (1613–1688/89); Joseph Pike (1638–1694); Thomas Pike (1682–1753/4); John Pike (1710–1755); Thomas Pike (1739–1836); Benjamin Pike (1780–?); Albert Pike (1809–1891).
^Hubbell, Jay B. (1954) The South in American Literature: 1607–1900. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. p. 640.
^ abcdefghijkMoneyhon, Carl H. "Albert Pike (1809–1891)". Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture (EOA. Central Arkansas Library System ). Retrieved January 17, 2021.
^ abEicher, John H., aer (2001) Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN0-8047-3641-3. p. 429
^Warner, Ezra J. (1959) Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN0-8071-0823-5. pp. 240–241
^Pike, Albert (2013). Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry. Orkos Press. ISBN978-1592328154.
^Boyden, William Llewellyn (1921). Bibliography of the Writings of Albert Pike: Prose, Poetry, Manuscript. Washington, D.C.: A.A.S.C. p. 18.
^Shea, William, and Earl Hess, Pea Ridge: Civil War Campaign in the West. University of North Carolina Press, 1992. ISBN0-8078-4669-4.
^Huff, Sanford W.,The Annals of Iowa, Published by the State Historical Society (Iowa State Historical Department, Division of Historical Museum and Archives, 1868), p. 149
^ abcSmith, Dean E. (1986) "Pike, Albert" in Historical Times Illustrated History of the Civil War, edited by Patricia L. Faust. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN978-0-06-273116-6. p. 585
^Brown, Walter Lee, A Life of Albert Pike (University of Arkansas Press, 1997), pp. 406–16
^Jones, William B. "Supreme Court of Arkansas". Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture (EOA. Central Arkansas Library System ). Retrieved January 17, 2021.
^ abcdBrown, Walter Lee (1997). A life of Albert Pike. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press. pp. 439–442. ISBN1557284695.
^de Hoyos, Arturo (1996) "On the Origins of the Prince Hall Scottish Rite Rituals", Heredom: The Transaction of the Scottish Rite Research Society vol. 5 Washington, D.C.: Scottish Rite Research Society, pp. 52–53
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Bob Taylor's Magazine (1910). Bob Taylor's Magazine. Vol. 11–12 (Public domain ed.). Taylor's Publishing Company.
Melanesian Spearhead GroupPeta anggota Melanesian Spearhead Group.Markas Port Vila, Vanuatu[1]Keanggotaan 4 Anggota Fiji Papua Nugini Kepulauan Solomon Vanuatu 1 Pendukung Front Pembebasan Nasional Kanak dan Sosialis 1 Pihak terkait Indonesia 2 Pengamat Timor Leste Persatuan Gerakan Pembebasan Papua Barat Pemimpin• Direktur Jenderal Amena Yauvoli Pendirian• Melanesian Spearhead Group 1986[2] Luas - Total58...
For men's footballers, see List of top international men's football goal scorers by country. Christine Sinclair of Canada is the all-time leading goalscorer for women's national teams This page lists the top all-time goalscorer for each women's national football team. This list is not an all-time top international goalscorers list, as several countries have two or more players with more goals than another country's top scorer. It simply lists only the top scorer for each country. Since Janua...
Tauberrettersheim. Tauberrettersheim adalah kota yang terletak di distrik Würzburg di Bayern, Jerman. Kota Tauberrettersheim memiliki luas sebesar 8.56 km². Tauberrettersheim pada tahun 2006, memiliki penduduk sebanyak 848 jiwa. lbsKota dan kotamadya di Würzburg Altertheim Aub Bergtheim Bieberehren Bütthard Eibelstadt Eisenheim Eisingen Erlabrunn Estenfeld Frickenhausen am Main Gaukönigshofen Gelchsheim Gerbrunn Geroldshausen Giebelstadt Greußenheim Güntersleben Hausen bei Würzbu...
Dutch indologist (1930–2012) Frits StaalBorn3 November 1930 Died19 February 2012 (aged 81)OccupationUniversity teacher EmployerUniversity of Amsterdam (1962–1967)University of Amsterdam (1964–1967) Johan Frederik Frits Staal (3 November 1930 – 19 February 2012) was the department founder and Emeritus Professor of Philosophy and South/Southeast Asian Studies at the University of California, Berkeley.[1][2] Staal specialized in the study of ...
This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: Hannegan v. Esquire, Inc. – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) 1946 United States Supreme Court caseHannegan v. Esquire, Inc.Supreme Court of the United StatesArgued January 11, 1946Decided February 4, 1946Full case nameRobert E...
1281 battle between Mamluks and Mongols This article is about the 1281 battle. For other uses, see Battle of Homs. 34°43′23″N 36°42′52″E / 34.723185°N 36.714462°E / 34.723185; 36.714462 Second Battle of Homsof the Mongols (left) at the 1281 Battle of Homs.Date29 October 1281LocationHomsResult Mamluk victoryBelligerents Ilkhanate Cilician Armenia Kingdom of Georgia Sultanate of Rum Knights Hospitaller[1] Mamluk SultanateCommanders and leaders M...
Association football club in Northern Ireland This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Institute F.C. – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Football clubInstituteFull nameInstitute Football ClubNickname(s)Stute, The Sky BluesFounded19...
NFL team season 2002 Carolina Panthers seasonOwnerJerry RichardsonGeneral managerMarty HurneyHead coachJohn FoxHome fieldEricsson StadiumResultsRecord7–9Division place4th NFC SouthPlayoff finishDid not qualifyPro BowlersDT Kris JenkinsP Todd SauerbrunAP All-ProsDT Kris Jenkins (1st team)P Todd Sauerbrun (1st team) ← 2001 Panthers seasons 2003 → The 2002 season was the Carolina Panthers' eighth in the National Football League and their first under head coach John F...
Selanovil adalah sebuah band Indie Pop yang terlahir di Kota Bandung, indonesia pada tahun 2022. Band yang terdiri dari 4 orang yakni Braja sebagai Vokalis dan Gitaris, Tengku (ucup) Vokalis & Gitaris, Fariz sebagai Bassist, dan Adji sebagai Drummer. Sebelum terbentuknya formasi Selanovil, Braja, Fariz, dan Adji merupakan teman satu sekolah yang sering megisi waktu kosong mereka dengan bermain musik. Suatu hari Ucup yang sedang mencari band untuk mengembangkan tulisan-tulisannya menjadi s...
Universitas Taibah جامعة طيبةJenisPerguruan tinggi negeriDidirikan2003 / 1424 Hijriah[1]RektorProf. Adnan bin Abdullah al-Mazrooa [2]Staf administrasi1.387 [1]Jumlah mahasiswa60.055 (2013) [1]LokasiMadinah, Provinsi Madinah, Arab Saudi24°28′54″N 39°33′23″E / 24.481798°N 39.556274°E / 24.481798; 39.556274Kampus30 [1]Situs webtaibahu.edu.sa Universitas Taibah (Arab: جامعة طيبة Jami'ah Thayyibah) ad...
Costs incurred on combatants The American Revolutionary War inflicted great financial costs on all of the combatants, including the United States, France, Spain and the Kingdom of Great Britain. France and Great Britain spent 1.3 billion livres and 250 million pounds, respectively. The United States spent $400 million in wages for its troops. Spain increased its military spending from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million reales in 1781. Economic warfare and financing The Boston Tea ...
Diversidad genética en maíz Zea mays La diversidad genética es el número total de características genéticas diferentes entre los individuos de una especie. Es el componente básico de la biodiversidad. Representa la capacidad para encontrar individuos que suplantan a otros afectados por dolencias congénitas, malformaciones, debilidad ante patógenos y otros problemas hereditarios. Cuanto mayor diversidad genética, mayores probabilidades tienen las especies de sobrevivir los cambios de...
American variety TV series Toast of the Town redirects here. For the song by Mötley Crüe, see Too Fast for Love. For the radio program, see The Ed Sullivan Show (radio program). The Ed Sullivan ShowLogo used for The Best of the Ed Sullivan Show package of clip shows since the early 1990s.Also known asToast of the Town (1948–55)GenreVarietySketch comedyPresented byEd SullivanNarrated by Bern Bennett Art Hannes Ralph Paul (announcer) Theme music composerRay BlochOpening themeToastCountry of...
Bola basket putri pada Pekan Olahraga Nasional 2016LokasiGOR C-tra Arena, Kota BandungTanggal18-28 September 2016Peserta154 atletPeraih medali Jawa Tengah DKI Jakarta Jawa Timur Bola basket padaPekan Olahraga Nasional XIX putra putri Kompetisi bola basket putri pada Pekan Olahraga Nasional XIX akan berlangsung dari tanggal 18 September dan berakhir pada tanggal 28 September 2016.[1] Kualifikasi Tuan rumah serta tim peraih Medali emas dan...
Derogatory term sometimes used for soul music performed by White artists For the Simply Red album, see Blue Eyed Soul (album). This article needs to be updated. The reason given is: it doesn't include any information from the past decade. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2022) Blue-eyed soul (also called white soul[1]) is rhythm and blues (R&B) and soul music performed by white artists.[2] The term was coine...
Spårvidden mäts mellan rälernas insidor. Spårvidd uttrycker avståndet mellan rälerna på ett järnvägsspår. Spårvidden mäts mellan rälshuvudenas innerkanter 14 mm under överkanten. Den vanligaste spårvidden idag är 1 435 mm (normalspår). Spårvidd kan även avse landsvägsfordon men mäts då mellan de axiella mittpunkterna på hjulen. Spårviddens historiska betydelse Ett smalt spår är billigare att bygga eftersom slipers blir kortare och banvallen smalare. De...
Once Upon a Time in High SchoolPoster teatrikalNama lainHangul말죽거리 잔혹사 Alih Aksara yang DisempurnakanMaljukgeori janhoksaMcCune–ReischauerMaljukgŏri chanhoksa SutradaraYoo HaProduserCha Seung-jaeNo Jong-yoonDitulis olehYoo HaPemeranKwon Sang-wooHan Ga-inLee Jung-jinPenata musikKim Joon-seokSinematograferChoi Hyeon-giPenyuntingPark Gok-jiPerusahaanproduksiSidus FNHDistributorCJ EntertainmentTanggal rilis 16 Januari 2004 (2004-01-16) Durasi116 menitNegaraKorea ...
أبو سهل المسيحي معلومات شخصية الميلاد 960جرجان تاريخ الوفاة 1000 مواطنة الدولة العباسية العرق الفرس الحياة العملية التلامذة المشهورون ابن سينا المهنة عالم فلك مجال العمل طب، وعلم الفلك، وفلسفة، وشعر تعديل مصدري - تعديل أبو سهل المسيحي (نحو 361 - 401 هـ ...
.png){kind=small}
