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Dekolonisasi Asia adalah perkembangan bertahap gerakan kemerdekaan di benua Asia, yang pada akhirnya menyebabkan hengkangnya kekuatan asing dan pembentukan sejumlah negara-bangsa di kawasan tersebut. Sejumlah peristiwa menjadi katalis perubahan ini, yang paling penting adalah Perang Dunia Kedua. Sebelum Perang Dunia II, beberapa negara seperti Filipina pada tahun 1898 telah memproklamasikan kemerdekaan dari Spanyol. Negara pertama yang didekolonisasi adalah Filipina pada tahun 1898, dan yang terakhir adalah Timor Leste pada tahun 2002 dari penjajahan Indonesia.

Latar Belakang

Mundurnya Spanyol dan Portugal pada abad ke-17 telah membuka jalan bagi kekuatan Eropa lainnya, yaitu Belanda, Prancis, dan Inggris. Portugal akan kehilangan pengaruh di semua kecuali tiga koloninya, yaitu Portugis India, Makau, dan Timor.

Pada akhir abad ke-17, Belanda telah mengambil alih sebagian besar koloni Portugis lama, dan telah membangun kehadiran yang kuat di Indonesia saat ini, dengan koloni di Aceh, Banten, Makassar, dan Jakarta. Belanda juga memiliki hubungan dagang dengan Siam, Jepang, Cina, dan Benggala.

Inggris telah bersaing dengan Portugis, Spanyol, dan Belanda untuk kepentingan mereka di Asia sejak awal abad ke-17 dan pada pertengahan abad ke-19 menguasai sebagian besar India (melalui Perusahaan Hindia Timur Britania), serta Burma, Ceylon, Malaya, dan Singapura. Setelah Pemberontakan India tahun 1857, Ratu Victoria dinyatakan sebagai Permaisuri India, dengan demikian memperkuat kekuasaan Inggris di anak benua tersebut. Akuisisi Inggris di Asia adalah Wilayah Baru Hong Kong, yang disewa dari Kaisar Dinasti Qing pada tahun 1897, memperluas koloni Inggris yang awalnya diserahkan dalam Perjanjian Nanking pada tahun 1842.

Prancis tidak banyak berhasil di India menyusul kekalahan melawan Inggris pada abad ke-17, meskipun mereka menguasai harta benda di pantai timur India (seperti Pondicherry dan Mahar) hinnga dekolonisasi. Prancis mendirikan koloni mereka yang paling menguntungkan da substansial di Indochina pada tahun 1862, akhirnya menduduki wilayah Vietnam, Laos, dan Kamboja saat ini pada tahun 1887.

Koloni Jepang yang pertama adalah Taiwan, diduduki pada tahun 1874 dan secara resmi diserahkan oleh Kaisar Dinasti Qing pada tahun 1894. Jepang melanjutkan imperialisme awalnya dengan aneksasi Korea pada tahun 1910

Amerika Serikat memasuki wilayah tersebut pada tahun 1898 selama Perang Spanyol-Amerika, merebut Filipina sebagai satu-satunya koloninya melalui pertempuran pura-pura di ibukota dan pembelian Filipina dari Spanyol setelah deklarasi kemerdekaan dan Republik Filipina Pertama.

Garis Waktu

Kolom "kekuasaan kolonial" dan "nama kolonial" digabungkan bila diperlukan untuk menunjukkan wilayah, di mana negara-negara saat ini didirikan, yang belum didekolonisasi tetapi mencapai kemerdekaan dengan cara yang berbeda.

Negara dan Wilayah	Nama Kolonial	Kekuasaan Kolonial	Kemerdekaan dideklarasikan	Kepala negara pertama	Kemerdekaan diraih melalui
Filipina	Hindia Timur Spanyol	Spanyol	12 Juni 1898	Emilio Aguinaldo	-
Yaman	Kerajaan Mutawakkiliyah Yaman Koloni Aden	Kesultanan Utsmaniyah Imperium Britania	1 November 1918 30 November 1967	Yahya I Qahtan Mohammed al-Shaabi	Perang Dunia 1 Aden darurat
Mesir	Kesultanan Mesir	Imperium Britania	28 Februari 1922	Fuad I	Revolusi Mesir 1919
Irak	Mandat Britania atas Mesopotamia	Imperium Britania	3 Oktober 1932	Faisal I of Iraq	-
Lebanon	Libanon Raya	Prancis	22 November 1943	Bechara El Khoury	–
Suriah	Mandat Suriah	Prancis	30 November 1943	Shukri al-Quwatli	Revolusi Suriah
Indonesia	Hindia Belanda Kekaisaran Jepang	Belanda Jepang	17 Agustus 1945 27 Desember 1949^[a]	Sukarno
Vietnam^[b]	Indochina Prancis Kekaisaran Jepang	Prancis Jepang	2 September 1945	Hồ Chí Minh	Revolusi Agustus
Yordania	Transyordania	Imperium Britania	25 Mei 1946	Abdullah I	–
Filipina	Kekaisaran Jepang Persemakmuran Filipina	Amerika Serikat Jepang	4 Juli 1946	Manuel Roxas	–
Pakistan	India	Imperium Britania	14 Agustus 1947	Liaquat Ali Khan
Bangladesh sebagai bagian dari Pakistan			14 Agustus 1947^[c]	Liaquat Ali Khan^[d]
India			15 Agustus 1947^[e]	Jawaharlal Nehru^[f]	Gerakan Kemerdekaan India
Myanmar^[g]	Jepang Burma Britania		1 Agustus 1943 4 Januari 1948	U Nu
Sri Lanka^[h]	Sailan Britania		4 Februari 1948 22 Februari 1972	Don Senanayake	–
Israel	Mandat Britania atas Palestina	Imperium Britania Liga Arab	14 Mei 1948^[i]	David Ben-Gurion^[j]	Perang Palestina 1948
Vietnam Selatan^[k]	Indochina Prancis	Prancis	28 Mei 1948 23 Oktober 1955	Ngo Dinh Diem	Referendum Negara Vietnam 1955
Korea Selatan	Korea di bawah Pemerintahan Kekaisaran Jepang	Kekaisaran Jepang	15 Agustus 1945; 15 Agustus 1948^[l]	Syngman Rhee^[m]	Gerakan kemerdekaan Korea
Korea Utara	Korea di bawah Pemerintahan Kekaisaran Jepang		15 Agustus 1945; 9 September 1948^[n]	Kim Il-sung^[o]	Gerakan kemerdekaan Korea
Tiongkok	Manchukuo		9 Agustus 1945	Chiang kai shek^[p]	Perang Tiongkok-Jepang Kedua
Tiongkok	Pemerintah Nasionalis di Tiongkok Daratan	Republik Tiongkok	1 Oktober 1949^[q]	Chiang kai shek^[p]	Perang Saudara Tiongkok
Taiwan dan Penghu^[r]	Taiwan	Jepang	15 August 1945 25 Oktober 1945^[s] 28 April 1952^[t]	Chen Yi	Perang Tiongkok-Jepang Kedua
Laos^[u]	Indochina Prancis	Prancis	22 Oktober 1953^[v]	Sisavang Vong^[w]	-^[x]
Cambodia	Indochina Prancis	Prancis	9 November 1953	Norodom Sihanouk	-^[x]
Malaysia	Malaya Koloni Borneo Utara Koloni Mahkota Sarawak	Imperium Britania	31 Agustus 1957 16 September 1963	Tuanku Abdul Rahman	Kedaruratan Malaya^[y]
Siprus	Siprus Britania		16 Agustus 1960^[z]	Makarios III	-^[aa]
Kuwait	Sheikhdom of Kuwait		19 Juni 1961	Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah	–
Oman	Muskat dan Oman^[ab]		9 Agustus 1970	Qaboos bin Said	Serangan Malam di Muskat -^[ac]
Singapura	Negeri-Negeri Selat		31 Agustus 1963; 9 Agustus 1965^[ad]	Yusof Ishak	–
Maladewa	Maladewa		26 Juli 1965	Muhammad Fareed Didi	–
Qatar	Qatar		3 September 1971	Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani	–
Uni Emirat Arab	Negara-Negara Gencatan Senjata		2 Desember 1971^[ae]	Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan	–
Bahrain	Bahrain		15 Agustus 1971^[1]^[af]	Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifa^[ag]	-^[ah]
Timor Leste	Hindia Belanda Kekaisaran Jepang Timor Portugis Timor Timur	Hindia Belanda Kekaisaran Jerman Britania Raya Australia Jepang Portugal Indonesia	1 Januari 1769 – 28 November 1975 28 November 1975 – 20 Mei 2002 (Invasi & Pendudukan Indonesia) 20 Mei 2002 (Kemerdekaan dari Indonesia) ^[ai]	Francisco Xavier do Amaral; Xanana Gusmão	Krisis Timor Timur 1999
Brunei	Brunei	Imperium Britania	1 Januari 1984	Hassanal Bolkiah	-^[aj]
Hong Kong	Hong Kong Britania	Imperium Britania	1 Juli 1997^[ak]	Tung Chee-hwa	–
Makau	Makau Portugis	Portugal	20 Desember 1999^[ak]	Edmund Ho	–

Catatan

^ Tidak dirayakan sebagai hari libur. Nugini Belanda dipisahkan dari Hindia Belanda pada tanggal 29 Desember 1949. Menyusul pertempuran kecil antara Indonesia dan Belanda, dan Perjanjian New York, Belanda mengalihkan otoritas Nugini Belanda ke protektorat PBB pada 1 Oktober 1962 dan diintegrasikan ke Indonesia pada 1 Mei 1963.
^ The Democratic Republic of Vietnam proclaimed independence on 2 September 1945 as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The State of Vietnam declared independence on 14 June 1949 but remained de facto under French rule until 1 August 1954. South Vietnam was the successor state to the State of Vietnam under the name of the Republic of Vietnam. Both parts of Vietnam merged into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975, after the Vietnam War.
^ Not celebrated as a holiday. On 16 December 1971, after months of fighting starting from 26 March of that year, Bangladesh formally seceded from Pakistan. The 26 March date is celebrated as Bangladesh's date of independence.
^ Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the President on the date of Bangladesh's secession.
^ Subsequently, a free and sovereign India unilaterally annexed Hyderabad State from Mir Osman Ali Khan in 1948 and Goa from Portugal in 1961; Puducherry was ceded by France in 1954. On 26 January 1950, India formally abolished its Commonwealth monarchy and became a republic.
^ Remained Prime Minister when India abolished it monarchy. Rajendra Prasad became President upon abolition.
^ As the Union of Burma.
^ As the Dominion of Ceylon.
^ 5 Iyar 5708 on the Jewish calendar. As Israel based its holidays on the Jewish calendar, celebrations do not always correspond with the Georgian date. One day after Israel declared its independence, the Arab League launched an attack on Israel that would last until 20 July 1949, ending with Israel securing its sovereignty.
^ Originally as Chairman of the Provisional State Council before becoming Prime Minister three days after independence; Chaim Weizmann succeeded him on that same day. Both remained in office (this time with Weizmann as President) on the date of the armistice.
^ The Provinsional Central Government of Vietnam proclaimed independence on 28 May 1948 then established State of Vietnam in 1949 with ex-emperor Bảo Đại as head of state, it was recognised by France as a part of France Union by France government. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam declared independence on 2 September 1945 but de facto a breakaway state without international recognise until Geneva Conference. Republic of Vietnam was the legal successor state to the State of Vietnam after 1955 State of Vietnam referendum. Both parts of Vietnam merged into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975, after the Vietnam War.
^ Date of Japanese surrender and the transfer of the southern half of the Korean peninsula to the United States. Celebrated as Liberation Day (or "Gwangbokjeol"). American administration lasted exactly three years. Gaecheonjeol ("National Foundation Day") celebrates the date 3 October 2333 BC, which (according to Korean mythology) was when the Gojoseon kingdom was founded.
^ Assumed office on 24 July 1948 as President.
^ Date of Japanese surrender and the transfer of the northern half of the Korean peninsula to the Soviet Union. Celebrated as Liberation Day (or "Jogukhaebangŭi nal"). Soviet administration lasted until 9 September 1948; this date, celebrated as Day of the Foundation of the Republic, serves as North Korea's national day.
^ Assumed office as Premier on 9 September 1948. Kim Tu-bong became Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly upon that same date.
^ Chairman of the National Government of the Republic of China at that time. After the Japanese surrender, communists soon took most of North-Eastern China because of the Soviets' transfer occupation zone, then the civil war begin and both communists and nationalists began to compete for Northeast China.
^ Date of establishment of the People's Republic by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The central government of the Republic of China evacuated to Taiwan on 7 December 1949 and continued to contested its claim of the sovereignty of all of China with the People's Republic. See also One-China policy.
^ After World War II, the islands of Taiwan and Penghu were placed under the administration of the Republic of China under General Order No. 1, although they nominally remained part of Japan. Before the post-war treaties were to be signed by the ROC and Japan, the ROC government was defeated in the Chinese Civil War to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and decamped to the island of Taiwan. Japan relinquished the claims to Taiwan and Penghu in the Treaty of San Francisco on 28 April 1952, but the sovereignty of the islands remained undetermined to this day. Taiwan and Penghu are still today governed by the Republic of China in a post-war capacity recognised by a few states as the sole legitimate government of "China". See also Political status of Taiwan and Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan.
^ Date when Taiwan and Penghu were returned to the Republic of China.
^ Date when the San Francisco Peace Treaty takes effect.
^ As the Kingdom of Laos.
^ Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 2 December 1975, which was when the Pathet Lao established the Lao People's Democratic Republic and ended both the monarchy and the decades-long civil war.
^ Souvanna Phouma was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
^ Although the First Indochina War occurred throughout French Indochina, most of the fighting was between the Việt Minh and France with occasional resistance from Laos and Cambodia. (The Kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia were nominal allies with France.)
^ The Malayan Communist Party fought in the Malayan Emergency between June 1948 – 12 July 1960.
^ Not celebrated as a holiday. For reasons unknown, Cyprus celebrates 1 October 1960, as its date of independence.
^ Armed struggles by the EOKA (Greek) and TMT (Turkish) organisations.
^ Muscat and Oman was de facto a British protectorate. On 4 June 1856, the Sultan who ruled from Stone Town, Zanzibar, died without appointing an heir. With British intervention on 6 April 1861, Zanzibar and Oman were divided into two separate principalities. Zanzibar later became a formal British protectorate, but the British influence over Muscat and Oman remained informal. In 1962 Britain declared Muscat and Oman an independent nation.
^ See the Dhofar Rebellion defeated with British help.
^ Between 16 September 1963 and 9 August 1965 Singapore was part of the Federation of Malaysia.
^ The independent UAE was joined by Ras al-Khaimah on 11 February 1972.
^ Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 16 December 1961, which was when Isa ibn Salman was crowned.^[2]
^ Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
^ The Bahraini independence survey, 1970 was a United Nation-run survey asking Bahrainis if they would rather be independent or under Iran's control. Although a non-binding survey that makes no mention of the United Kingdom, the results (which showed an overwhelming majority supporting independence) led Iran to denounce its claims over Bahrain, which in turn led to the United Kingdom ending its protectorate.
^ Dirayakan masing-masing sebagai Hari Proklamasi Kemerdekaan dan Hari Pemulihan Kemerdekaan. Kemerdekaan dideklarasikan pada 28 November 1975, tetapi sembilan hari kemudian Indonesia menginvasi Timor Timur dan secara resmi mencaploknya pada 17 Juli 1976. Indonesia menginvasi secara resmi mencaploknya pada 17 Juli 1976. Sepanjang pendudukan Indonesia sebagian besar Negara internasional menolak untuk mengakui Timor Timur sebagai provinsiIndonesia. Kemerdekaan dipulihkan setelah intervensi PBB dari 25 Oktober 1999 sampai 20 Mei 2002. Hari Pemulihan Kemerdekaan berfungsi sebagai hari nasional Timor Timur.
^ The Brunei Revolt was a rebellion against the sultan suppressed with British assistance in 1966.
^ ^a ^b Date of transfer to the People's Republic of China.

Artikel bertopik sejarah ini adalah sebuah rintisan. Anda dapat membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya.

^ "The World Factbook: Field Listing: Independence". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2013-02-27. Diakses tanggal 2018-05-12.
^ "National Day 2022, 2023 and 2024 in Bahrain".

[1] Tidak dirayakan sebagai hari libur. Nugini Belanda dipisahkan dari Hindia Belanda pada tanggal 29 Desember 1949. Menyusul pertempuran kecil antara Indonesia dan Belanda, dan Perjanjian New York, Belanda mengalihkan otoritas Nugini Belanda ke protektorat PBB pada 1 Oktober 1962 dan diintegrasikan ke Indonesia pada 1 Mei 1963.

[2] The Democratic Republic of Vietnam proclaimed independence on 2 September 1945 as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The State of Vietnam declared independence on 14 June 1949 but remained de facto under French rule until 1 August 1954. South Vietnam was the successor state to the State of Vietnam under the name of the Republic of Vietnam. Both parts of Vietnam merged into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975, after the Vietnam War.

[3] Not celebrated as a holiday. On 16 December 1971, after months of fighting starting from 26 March of that year, Bangladesh formally seceded from Pakistan. The 26 March date is celebrated as Bangladesh's date of independence.

[4] Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the President on the date of Bangladesh's secession.

[5] Subsequently, a free and sovereign India unilaterally annexed Hyderabad State from Mir Osman Ali Khan in 1948 and Goa from Portugal in 1961; Puducherry was ceded by France in 1954. On 26 January 1950, India formally abolished its Commonwealth monarchy and became a republic.

[6] Remained Prime Minister when India abolished it monarchy. Rajendra Prasad became President upon abolition.

[7] As the Union of Burma.

[8] As the Dominion of Ceylon.

[9] 5 Iyar 5708 on the Jewish calendar. As Israel based its holidays on the Jewish calendar, celebrations do not always correspond with the Georgian date. One day after Israel declared its independence, the Arab League launched an attack on Israel that would last until 20 July 1949, ending with Israel securing its sovereignty.

[10] Originally as Chairman of the Provisional State Council before becoming Prime Minister three days after independence; Chaim Weizmann succeeded him on that same day. Both remained in office (this time with Weizmann as President) on the date of the armistice.

[11] The Provinsional Central Government of Vietnam proclaimed independence on 28 May 1948 then established State of Vietnam in 1949 with ex-emperor Bảo Đại as head of state, it was recognised by France as a part of France Union by France government. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam declared independence on 2 September 1945 but de facto a breakaway state without international recognise until Geneva Conference. Republic of Vietnam was the legal successor state to the State of Vietnam after 1955 State of Vietnam referendum. Both parts of Vietnam merged into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975, after the Vietnam War.

[12] Date of Japanese surrender and the transfer of the southern half of the Korean peninsula to the United States. Celebrated as Liberation Day (or "Gwangbokjeol"). American administration lasted exactly three years. Gaecheonjeol ("National Foundation Day") celebrates the date 3 October 2333 BC, which (according to Korean mythology) was when the Gojoseon kingdom was founded.

[13] Assumed office on 24 July 1948 as President.

[14] Date of Japanese surrender and the transfer of the northern half of the Korean peninsula to the Soviet Union. Celebrated as Liberation Day (or "Jogukhaebangŭi nal"). Soviet administration lasted until 9 September 1948; this date, celebrated as Day of the Foundation of the Republic, serves as North Korea's national day.

[15] Assumed office as Premier on 9 September 1948. Kim Tu-bong became Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly upon that same date.

[16] Chairman of the National Government of the Republic of China at that time. After the Japanese surrender, communists soon took most of North-Eastern China because of the Soviets' transfer occupation zone, then the civil war begin and both communists and nationalists began to compete for Northeast China.

[17] Date of establishment of the People's Republic by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The central government of the Republic of China evacuated to Taiwan on 7 December 1949 and continued to contested its claim of the sovereignty of all of China with the People's Republic. See also One-China policy.

[18] After World War II, the islands of Taiwan and Penghu were placed under the administration of the Republic of China under General Order No. 1, although they nominally remained part of Japan. Before the post-war treaties were to be signed by the ROC and Japan, the ROC government was defeated in the Chinese Civil War to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and decamped to the island of Taiwan. Japan relinquished the claims to Taiwan and Penghu in the Treaty of San Francisco on 28 April 1952, but the sovereignty of the islands remained undetermined to this day. Taiwan and Penghu are still today governed by the Republic of China in a post-war capacity recognised by a few states as the sole legitimate government of "China". See also Political status of Taiwan and Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan.

[19] Date when Taiwan and Penghu were returned to the Republic of China.

[20] Date when the San Francisco Peace Treaty takes effect.

[21] As the Kingdom of Laos.

[22] Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 2 December 1975, which was when the Pathet Lao established the Lao People's Democratic Republic and ended both the monarchy and the decades-long civil war.

[23] Souvanna Phouma was Prime Minister on the date of independence.

[24] Although the First Indochina War occurred throughout French Indochina, most of the fighting was between the Việt Minh and France with occasional resistance from Laos and Cambodia. (The Kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia were nominal allies with France.)

[25] The Malayan Communist Party fought in the Malayan Emergency between June 1948 – 12 July 1960.

[26] Not celebrated as a holiday. For reasons unknown, Cyprus celebrates 1 October 1960, as its date of independence.

[27] Armed struggles by the EOKA (Greek) and TMT (Turkish) organisations.

[28] Muscat and Oman was de facto a British protectorate. On 4 June 1856, the Sultan who ruled from Stone Town, Zanzibar, died without appointing an heir. With British intervention on 6 April 1861, Zanzibar and Oman were divided into two separate principalities. Zanzibar later became a formal British protectorate, but the British influence over Muscat and Oman remained informal. In 1962 Britain declared Muscat and Oman an independent nation.

[29] See the Dhofar Rebellion defeated with British help.

[30] Between 16 September 1963 and 9 August 1965 Singapore was part of the Federation of Malaysia.

[31] The independent UAE was joined by Ras al-Khaimah on 11 February 1972.

[34] Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 16 December 1961, which was when Isa ibn Salman was crowned.^[2]

[35] Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa was Prime Minister on the date of independence.

[36] The Bahraini independence survey, 1970 was a United Nation-run survey asking Bahrainis if they would rather be independent or under Iran's control. Although a non-binding survey that makes no mention of the United Kingdom, the results (which showed an overwhelming majority supporting independence) led Iran to denounce its claims over Bahrain, which in turn led to the United Kingdom ending its protectorate.

[37] Dirayakan masing-masing sebagai Hari Proklamasi Kemerdekaan dan Hari Pemulihan Kemerdekaan. Kemerdekaan dideklarasikan pada 28 November 1975, tetapi sembilan hari kemudian Indonesia menginvasi Timor Timur dan secara resmi mencaploknya pada 17 Juli 1976. Indonesia menginvasi secara resmi mencaploknya pada 17 Juli 1976. Sepanjang pendudukan Indonesia sebagian besar Negara internasional menolak untuk mengakui Timor Timur sebagai provinsiIndonesia. Kemerdekaan dipulihkan setelah intervensi PBB dari 25 Oktober 1999 sampai 20 Mei 2002. Hari Pemulihan Kemerdekaan berfungsi sebagai hari nasional Timor Timur.

[38] The Brunei Revolt was a rebellion against the sultan suppressed with British assistance in 1966.

[China-39] Date of transfer to the People's Republic of China.

[32] "The World Factbook: Field Listing: Independence". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2013-02-27. Diakses tanggal 2018-05-12.

[33] "National Day 2022, 2023 and 2024 in Bahrain".

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PROFILPELAJAR.COM

Dekolonisasi Asia

Latar Belakang

Garis Waktu

Catatan

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