改土归流

改土归流又稱土司改流廢土改流,是指朝廷廢除原來統治少數民族土司,派任流官。始於明代初期的永乐年间[a],到清朝雍正年间大规模实行。

背景

土司制度是在时期羁縻州县制的基础上发展而成的,其实质是“以土官治土民”,承認各少数民族的世襲首领地位,給予其官職頭銜,以进行间接统治;由於朝廷實力不夠,命令实际上并没有能够得到實施[1]

有些土官以世襲故,恣肆虐殺百姓,為患邊境,“汉民被其摧残,夷人受其荼毒。”[2]。甚至土司家族內部發生械鬥或是戰爭康熙三十八年(1699年),东川彝族禄氏家族因争夺土府继承权,互相残杀。

过程

为了完全控制西南少數民族,以解決土司割据的积弊的名義,两朝的君主,开始酝酿解决这个问题。改土归流一般采取两种办法:“一是从上而下,先改土府,后改土州。二是抓住一切有利时机进行,如有的土官绝嗣,后继无人,或宗族争袭,就派流官接任;土官之间互相仇杀,被平定后,即派流官接任;有的土官犯罪,或反王朝被镇压后,以罪革职,改由流官充任”[3]

明初的永乐帝,最早在贵州实行改土归流,史称贵州建制

雍正时期,国力强盛,朝廷已经有足够的力量加强对少数民族地区的统治。雍正四年(1726年),鄂尔泰大力推行改土归流[4],即由中央政府选派有一定任期的流官直接管理少数民族地区的政务,“改流之法,计擒为上策,兵剿为下策,令其投献为上策,敕令投献为下策。”,“制苗之法,固应恩威并用”[5]。广顺长寨土司向官兵挑衅,竟遭到清軍毁灭性的打击,设长寨厅(今贵州省长顺县)。

雍正八年(1730年),镇沅流官刘起元贪婪无度[6],乌蒙土目禄万福在乌蒙镇发动兵变,刘起元逃至荔枝河被杀,行省接壤处的土司群起响应。鄂尔泰下令士兵穷追严剿,“分兵穷搜,务获得魁,尽屠丑类”,镇压之時,將所有的土司戮殺殆盡;最後招民垦种,“给予田地、耕牛、谷种,俾得各安其业”。至乾隆初年(1736年),会泽“民夷商贾,四方辐辏,食货浩穰”。

改土归流涉及的地区和民族有省的苗族彝族布依族侗族白族傣族等。实行改土归流之前,云南土司有47家[7]。实行改土归流之后,不但以漢族為主導的中央集权的朝廷统治得到了加強,各少数民族的文化和政治地位被毀滅性地打擊,漢化也进一步加快。中華民國大陸時期,少数地区虽然还残存土司制度,其作用和影响也已大大削弱。中华人民共和国成立后,確立了民族區域自治制度,自此彻底废除土司制度[8]

注释

  1. ^ 永樂十一年,思南宣慰使田宗鼎與思州宣慰使田琛因爭地叛亂,互相廝殺。亂事平定後,於當地設置貴州布政使司,揭開改土歸流的序幕。播州之役後,明朝政府於萬曆二十九年(1601年),以播州宣慰司設遵義、平越二府。遵義府入隸四川,平越府入隸貴州。

参考文献

  1. ^ 雍正四年十一月十五日,《恭谢圣恩,敬陈愚悃事》折:“查云南土官多半强豪,所属苗民悉听其指使,残暴横肆,无所不为。其土官懦弱者,凶恶把目,为害尤甚,不但目无府州,亦并心无督抚。”
  2. ^ 雍正四年九月十九日,《剪除夷官,清查田土,以增租赋,以靖地方事》折
  3. ^ 黄现璠《壮族通史》
  4. ^ 鄂尔泰《改土归流疏》:“改土归流,将富强横暴者(指土司)渐次擒拿,懦弱昏者(亦指土司)渐次改置,纵使田赋兵刑,尽心料理,大端就绪。”
  5. ^ 雍正四年四月初九日,《请肃清顽苗,以靖边方事》一折中说:“总之,制苗之法,固应恩威并用,然恩非姑息,威非猛烈,到得用着时必须穷究到底,杀一儆百,使不敢在犯,则威仍是恩所全实多。”
  6. ^ 倪蜕《滇云历年传》卷十二中载:“夷民之马,上者官索之,中者兵需之。不幸而妻女可观,无不嬲也。凡有薪炭入市,兵役输抽,以为过税;旧时酋目向来自贵,今见工匠,务须下马,迟则捶楚;加之大关通判刘镇宝丈量田地,苛刻为能,教授李焜管督城工,迂疏繁碎,于是远近夷民皆无生之气,有死之心。”
  7. ^ 《道光云南志钞·土司志》
  8. ^ 秦中应 《建国以来关于“改土归流”问题研究综述》,《边疆经济与文化》2005年第6期。

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